Add level resolutions of maximal planar graphs paper

Migrate the paper content into the amsart template and include the
supporting experiments scripts.
This commit is contained in:
2026-05-19 23:35:01 -04:00
parent 5b0a5b290a
commit bd9c46d3e4
31 changed files with 5492 additions and 0 deletions
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# Level Resolution Experiments
Computational investigation of a structural proof strategy for the four
color theorem via *level resolutions* of maximal planar graphs.
See `paper.tex` for full definitions, conjectures, and findings.
## Files
### Core library
- `level_cycles.py` — levels, level subgraphs, level cycles, resolution
enumeration (used by old-definition coverage).
- `triangulation_gen.py` — vertex-insertion + flip closure (good to n=10).
- `triangulation_gen_fast.py` — WL-hash pre-filter for n ≥ 11.
- `balanced_layout.py` — Tutte-init random-search planar layout.
- `four_color.py` — level 4-coloring via parity 2-coloring of L_k.
### Experiments
- `coverage_new_def.py`**coverage under the cleaner definition**:
G' is a level resolution of G via S iff its parity subgraphs are
bipartite. Reachability reduces to "G' admits a bipartite 2-partition
with cardinality matching some BFS-realizable parity split."
- `coverage.py`, `coverage_fast.py`, `coverage_chunked.py` — coverage
under the OLD (stricter) definition involving specific edge flips on
level cycles.
- `face_counting.py` — per-target preimage counts (N_iso, N_paths) under
the old definition.
- `orbit_check.py` — orbit-counting with k-flip reverse-preimages (used
for old-definition icosahedron analysis).
### Visualizations
- `plot_oct.py`, `n7_examples.py`, `four_color_viz.py`.
## Summary under the new definition
| n | iso-classes | reachable | md4 reachable |
|----|-------------|-----------|---------------|
| 6 | 2 | 2 | 1/1 |
| 7 | 5 | 5 | 1/1 |
| 8 | 14 | 14 | 2/2 |
| 9 | 50 | 50 | 5/5 |
| 10 | 233 | 233 | 12/12 |
| 11 | 1249 | 1249 | 34/34 |
| 12 | icosahedron | reachable | yes |
**Every iso-class is reachable** at every tested size. The previously
"uncovered" classes T1 (n=7) and T6 (n=8) under the old definition are
both reachable under the cleaner definition.
The new definition makes coverage equivalent to 4CT plus a BFS-realizable
partition cardinality constraint, raising the question of what additional
structure on the preimage G would make the framework non-circular.
## Dependencies
```
pip install networkx matplotlib numpy scipy
```
@@ -0,0 +1,212 @@
"""
Face-area-balanced planar layout for maximal planar graphs.
Starts from a Tutte embedding (outer face on a circle) and uses random-search
optimization to equalize interior face areas while maintaining planarity.
"""
import networkx as nx
import numpy as np
import scipy.linalg
def _get_all_faces(emb):
"""Enumerate all faces of a PlanarEmbedding."""
seen, faces = set(), []
for v in emb.nodes():
for w in emb[v]:
if (v, w) not in seen:
face = emb.traverse_face(v, w)
for i in range(len(face)):
seen.add((face[i], face[(i+1) % len(face)]))
faces.append(tuple(face))
return faces
def _tutte_layout(G, outer_face):
"""Standard uniform Tutte embedding with outer face on unit circle."""
outer = list(outer_face)
k = len(outer)
fixed_pos = {v: np.array([np.cos(2*np.pi*i/k - np.pi/2),
np.sin(2*np.pi*i/k - np.pi/2)])
for i, v in enumerate(outer)}
interior = [v for v in G.nodes() if v not in fixed_pos]
if not interior:
return fixed_pos
int_idx = {v: i for i, v in enumerate(interior)}
m = len(interior)
A = np.zeros((m, m)); bx = np.zeros(m); by = np.zeros(m)
for v in interior:
i = int_idx[v]; nbrs = list(G.neighbors(v)); deg = len(nbrs)
A[i, i] = -1.0
for u in nbrs:
if u in int_idx:
A[i, int_idx[u]] += 1.0 / deg
else:
bx[i] -= fixed_pos[u][0] / deg
by[i] -= fixed_pos[u][1] / deg
px = scipy.linalg.solve(A, bx)
py = scipy.linalg.solve(A, by)
pos = dict(fixed_pos)
for v in interior:
pos[v] = np.array([px[int_idx[v]], py[int_idx[v]]])
return pos
def _segments_cross(p1, p2, p3, p4):
"""True iff open segments p1-p2 and p3-p4 cross (not at endpoints)."""
def cross(o, a, b):
return (a[0]-o[0])*(b[1]-o[1]) - (a[1]-o[1])*(b[0]-o[0])
d1 = cross(p3, p4, p1); d2 = cross(p3, p4, p2)
d3 = cross(p1, p2, p3); d4 = cross(p1, p2, p4)
return ((d1 > 0 and d2 < 0) or (d1 < 0 and d2 > 0)) and \
((d3 > 0 and d4 < 0) or (d3 < 0 and d4 > 0))
def _count_crossings(G, pos):
"""Number of pairs of edges whose straight-line segments cross."""
edges = list(G.edges())
n = 0
for i in range(len(edges)):
a, b = edges[i]
for j in range(i+1, len(edges)):
c, d = edges[j]
if len({a, b, c, d}) < 4:
continue
if _segments_cross(pos[a], pos[b], pos[c], pos[d]):
n += 1
return n
def _face_area(pos, face):
"""Unsigned area of a triangular (or polygonal) face."""
pts = [pos[v] for v in face]
return 0.5 * abs((pts[1][0]-pts[0][0])*(pts[2][1]-pts[0][1])
- (pts[1][1]-pts[0][1])*(pts[2][0]-pts[0][0]))
def _edge_lengths(G, pos):
return [np.linalg.norm(pos[u] - pos[v]) for u, v in G.edges()]
def _score(G, pos, interior_faces, w_area=1.0, w_edge=0.3):
"""Combined penalty: normalized variance of face areas + edge lengths."""
areas = np.array([_face_area(pos, f) for f in interior_faces])
a_mean = areas.mean()
area_score = np.sum((areas - a_mean)**2) / (a_mean**2)
lens = np.array(_edge_lengths(G, pos))
l_mean = lens.mean()
edge_score = np.sum((lens - l_mean)**2) / (l_mean**2)
return w_area * area_score + w_edge * edge_score
def balanced_planar_layout(
G,
outer_face,
n_explore=8000,
n_refine=4000,
explore_step=0.30,
refine_step=0.05,
w_area=1.0,
w_edge=0.3,
seed=42,
verbose=False,
):
"""
Compute a planar layout for a maximal planar graph G whose interior faces
have roughly equal area and whose edges have roughly equal length.
Starts from a uniform Tutte embedding (outer face on a unit circle in CCW
order starting at the south pole), then runs random-search optimization,
accepting only moves that keep the layout planar.
Parameters
----------
G : networkx.Graph
A simple connected planar graph; intended for maximal planar graphs.
outer_face : tuple
Cyclic ordering of vertices on the outer face. Pinned during
optimization.
n_explore, n_refine : int
Number of iterations in the exploration and refinement phases.
explore_step, refine_step : float
Standard deviation of Gaussian moves in each phase.
w_area, w_edge : float
Weights for the face-area and edge-length penalties in the score.
seed : int
RNG seed for reproducibility.
verbose : bool
If True, print progress.
Returns
-------
dict[node, np.ndarray]
Position of each vertex.
"""
is_planar, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not is_planar:
raise ValueError("G is not planar")
pos = _tutte_layout(G, outer_face)
all_faces = _get_all_faces(emb)
outer_set = set(outer_face)
interior_faces = [f for f in all_faces if set(f) != outer_set]
if _count_crossings(G, pos) != 0:
raise RuntimeError("Initial Tutte layout is not planar; check inputs")
interior_nodes = [v for v in G.nodes() if v not in outer_set]
if not interior_nodes:
return pos
rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
best_score = _score(G, pos, interior_faces, w_area, w_edge)
best_pos = {k: v.copy() for k, v in pos.items()}
initial_score = best_score
for phase_name, n_iter, step in [("explore", n_explore, explore_step),
("refine", n_refine, refine_step)]:
pos = {k: v.copy() for k, v in best_pos.items()}
accepted = 0
for it in range(n_iter):
v = interior_nodes[rng.integers(len(interior_nodes))]
delta = rng.normal(0, step, 2)
old = pos[v].copy()
pos[v] = old + delta
if _count_crossings(G, pos) == 0:
new_score = _score(G, pos, interior_faces, w_area, w_edge)
if new_score < best_score:
best_score = new_score
best_pos = {k: vv.copy() for k, vv in pos.items()}
accepted += 1
else:
pos[v] = old
else:
pos[v] = old
if verbose:
print(f" {phase_name}: score {best_score:.4f}, "
f"accepted {accepted}/{n_iter}")
if verbose:
print(f"Initial score: {initial_score:.4f}")
print(f"Final score: {best_score:.4f}")
return best_pos
# ── Demo ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
if __name__ == "__main__":
edges = [(0,1),(0,2),(0,3),(0,4),(0,5),(0,6),
(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6),
(2,3),(2,4),(3,5),(4,6)]
G = nx.Graph()
G.add_nodes_from(range(7))
G.add_edges_from(edges)
pos = balanced_planar_layout(G, outer_face=(0, 3, 5), verbose=True)
print("\nFinal positions:")
for v in sorted(pos):
p = pos[v]
print(f" {v}: ({p[0]:+.3f}, {p[1]:+.3f})")
print(f"Crossings: {_count_crossings(G, pos)}")
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"""
Coverage analysis: for each pair (n, target-class restriction), check whether
every iso-class in the restriction is reachable as a level resolution of
some triangulation on n vertices.
"""
import networkx as nx
import time
from level_cycles import all_level_resolutions
from triangulation_gen import enumerate_all_triangulations
def iso_class(G, reps):
for i, r in enumerate(reps):
if nx.is_isomorphic(G, r):
return i
return -1
def resolution_classes(G, reps):
return {iso_class(Gp, reps) for Gp, _, _, _ in all_level_resolutions(G)}
def min_degree(G):
return min(d for _, d in G.degree())
def coverage_report(n, target_filter=None, source_filter=None):
"""
target_filter / source_filter: callables G -> bool, or None for "any".
"""
print(f"\n{'='*60}\nn = {n}\n{'='*60}")
t0 = time.time()
reps = enumerate_all_triangulations(n)
print(f"Total iso-classes: {len(reps)}")
if source_filter is None:
sources = list(range(len(reps)))
print(f"Sources: all {len(sources)}")
else:
sources = [i for i, G in enumerate(reps) if source_filter(G)]
print(f"Sources (filtered): {len(sources)}")
if target_filter is None:
targets = set(range(len(reps)))
else:
targets = {i for i, G in enumerate(reps) if target_filter(G)}
print(f"Targets: {len(targets)} iso-classes")
for i in sorted(targets):
deg = sorted((d for _, d in reps[i].degree()), reverse=True)
print(f" T{i}: degree {deg}")
reached, sources_per_target = set(), {i: [] for i in targets}
for src_i in sources:
prod = resolution_classes(reps[src_i], reps) & targets
for p in prod:
sources_per_target[p].append(src_i)
reached |= prod
print("\nCoverage:")
for i in sorted(targets):
sources_list = sources_per_target[i]
status = "REACHED" if sources_list else "UNREACHABLE"
s = ", ".join(f"T{j}" for j in sources_list[:6])
if len(sources_list) > 6:
s += f", ... ({len(sources_list)} total)"
elif not sources_list:
s = "(none)"
print(f" T{i}: {status} via {s}")
uncov = targets - reached
print(f"\nUncovered: {sorted(uncov)}")
print(f"Time: {time.time()-t0:.1f}s")
if __name__ == "__main__":
# General coverage (any source, any target)
for n in [6, 7]:
coverage_report(n)
# md3 sources -> md4 targets
print("\n\n" + "#"*60)
print("md3 sources -> md4 targets")
print("#"*60)
for n in [6, 7, 8]:
coverage_report(n, target_filter=lambda G: min_degree(G) >= 4)
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
"""Chunked coverage analysis. Processes a slice of sources per invocation.
Saves and resumes progress via a pickle file. Run repeatedly until done."""
import sys; sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude/build')
import networkx as nx
import pickle
import time
import os
from collections import defaultdict
from level_cycles import all_level_resolutions
from triangulation_gen import enumerate_all_triangulations
STATE_FILE = '/tmp/n11_state.pkl'
N = 11
CHUNK_SECONDS = 200 # how long this invocation should work
def degree_seq(G):
return tuple(sorted((d for _, d in G.degree()), reverse=True))
def min_degree(G):
return min(d for _, d in G.degree())
# Load or initialize state
if os.path.exists(STATE_FILE):
with open(STATE_FILE, 'rb') as f:
state = pickle.load(f)
print(f"Resumed. Done: {state['next_idx']}/{state['total']}")
else:
t0 = time.time()
print("Initializing...")
reps = enumerate_all_triangulations(N)
print(f" {len(reps)} iso-classes in {time.time()-t0:.1f}s")
deg_b = defaultdict(list); hash_b = defaultdict(list)
for i, G in enumerate(reps):
ds = degree_seq(G)
deg_b[ds].append(i)
hash_b[(ds, nx.weisfeiler_lehman_graph_hash(G))].append((i, G))
state = {
'reps': reps,
'deg_b': dict(deg_b),
'hash_b': dict(hash_b),
'produced_by': {},
'next_idx': 0,
'total': len(reps),
}
with open(STATE_FILE, 'wb') as f:
pickle.dump(state, f)
print(f"Init done in {time.time()-t0:.1f}s")
reps = state['reps']
deg_b = state['deg_b']
hash_b = state['hash_b']
produced_by = state['produced_by']
def fast_iso(G):
ds = degree_seq(G)
if ds not in deg_b: return -1
h = nx.weisfeiler_lehman_graph_hash(G)
for idx, rep in hash_b.get((ds, h), []):
if nx.is_isomorphic(G, rep): return idx
return -1
start = time.time()
i = state['next_idx']
processed = 0
while i < state['total'] and time.time() - start < CHUNK_SECONDS:
G = reps[i]
s = set()
for Gp, _, _, _ in all_level_resolutions(G):
c = fast_iso(Gp)
if c >= 0: s.add(c)
produced_by[i] = s
i += 1
processed += 1
state['next_idx'] = i
state['produced_by'] = produced_by
with open(STATE_FILE, 'wb') as f:
pickle.dump(state, f)
elapsed = time.time() - start
print(f"Processed {processed} sources in {elapsed:.0f}s. "
f"Now at {i}/{state['total']}.")
if i >= state['total']:
print("\n=== ALL DONE ===")
all_prod = set().union(*produced_by.values())
uncov = set(range(state['total'])) - all_prod
md4_idx = set(j for j, G in enumerate(reps) if min_degree(G) >= 4)
md4_reached = set().union(*(produced_by[k] & md4_idx
for k in range(state['total'])))
md4_uncov = md4_idx - md4_reached
print(f"General: {state['total'] - len(uncov)}/{state['total']} reached")
if uncov:
for j in sorted(uncov)[:20]:
print(f" uncovered T{j}: degree {degree_seq(reps[j])}")
print(f"md4: {len(md4_idx) - len(md4_uncov)}/{len(md4_idx)} reached")
if md4_uncov:
for j in sorted(md4_uncov):
print(f" uncovered md4 T{j}: degree {degree_seq(reps[j])}")
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
"""
Fast coverage analysis using WL hash for iso-class lookup.
"""
import sys; sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude/build')
import networkx as nx
import time
from collections import defaultdict
from level_cycles import all_level_resolutions
from triangulation_gen_fast import enumerate_all_triangulations_fast, wl_hash
def build_iso_index(reps):
"""Map WL hash -> list of (idx, G) so iso-checks only run within hash bucket."""
idx = defaultdict(list)
for i, G in enumerate(reps):
idx[wl_hash(G)].append((i, G))
return idx
def iso_class_fast(G, iso_index):
h = wl_hash(G)
for i, R in iso_index.get(h, []):
if nx.is_isomorphic(G, R):
return i
return -1
def resolution_classes_fast(G, iso_index):
return {iso_class_fast(Gp, iso_index)
for Gp, _, _, _ in all_level_resolutions(G)
if iso_class_fast(Gp, iso_index) >= 0}
def min_degree(G):
return min(d for _, d in G.degree())
def coverage_at(n, report_every=100):
t0 = time.time()
reps = enumerate_all_triangulations_fast(n)
iso_index = build_iso_index(reps)
print(f"n={n}: {len(reps)} iso-classes enumerated and indexed "
f"({time.time()-t0:.1f}s)")
md4_idx = set(i for i, G in enumerate(reps) if min_degree(G) >= 4)
t1 = time.time()
produced_by = {}
for i, G in enumerate(reps):
produced_by[i] = resolution_classes_fast(G, iso_index)
if (i + 1) % report_every == 0:
elapsed = time.time() - t1
eta = elapsed * (len(reps) - i - 1) / (i + 1)
print(f" {i+1}/{len(reps)} ({elapsed:.0f}s, ETA {eta:.0f}s)")
print(f"Resolution computation: {time.time()-t1:.1f}s")
all_prod = set().union(*produced_by.values())
uncovered = set(range(len(reps))) - all_prod
md4_reached = set().union(*(produced_by[i] & md4_idx
for i in range(len(reps))))
md4_uncov = md4_idx - md4_reached
print(f"\nGeneral coverage: {len(reps) - len(uncovered)}/{len(reps)}")
if uncovered:
for i in sorted(uncovered):
deg = sorted((d for _, d in reps[i].degree()), reverse=True)
print(f" uncovered T{i}: degree {deg}")
print(f"md4 coverage: {len(md4_idx) - len(md4_uncov)}/{len(md4_idx)}")
if md4_uncov:
for i in sorted(md4_uncov):
deg = sorted((d for _, d in reps[i].degree()), reverse=True)
print(f" uncovered md4 T{i}: degree {deg}")
print(f"Total: {time.time()-t0:.1f}s")
if __name__ == "__main__":
for n in [11]:
print("=" * 60)
coverage_at(n, report_every=100)
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
"""
Coverage analysis under the NEW definition of level resolution:
G' is a level resolution of G via S iff both parity subgraphs of G' (using
G's BFS-from-S parities) are bipartite.
Since the iso-class of G' doesn't depend on the specific labeling (only the
cardinalities |V_e|, |V_o| matter via permutation), G' is reachable iff:
- there exist achievable parity cardinalities (s, n-s) from some (G, S),
- G' admits a 2-partition into bipartite-induced subgraphs of those sizes.
"""
import sys; sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude/build')
import networkx as nx
import time
from itertools import combinations
from collections import defaultdict
from level_cycles import (
compute_levels, get_all_faces, level_sources,
)
from triangulation_gen import enumerate_all_triangulations
from triangulation_gen_fast import enumerate_all_triangulations_fast
def min_degree(G):
return min(d for _, d in G.degree())
def achievable_parity_splits(reps):
"""Return set of (|V_e|, |V_o|) cardinality tuples achievable across all
(G, S) pairs from the given triangulation reps."""
splits = set()
for G in reps:
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: continue
for kind, label, source_set in level_sources(G, emb):
levels = compute_levels(G, source_set)
even = sum(1 for v in levels.values() if v % 2 == 0)
odd = sum(1 for v in levels.values() if v % 2 == 1)
splits.add((even, odd))
return splits
def has_bipartite_partition(G, sizes):
"""Does G admit a 2-partition (S, V\\S) with |S| in `sizes` (or n-|S| in
sizes) such that both G[S] and G[V\\S] are bipartite?"""
V = list(G.nodes())
n = len(V)
accept_sizes = set(s for s in sizes if 1 <= s <= n - 1)
accept_sizes |= set(n - s for s in sizes if 1 <= n - s <= n - 1)
seen_sizes = sorted(accept_sizes)
# Avoid duplicate work: check size s and size n-s give same partition
seen = set()
for size in seen_sizes:
if size > n - size:
continue
for S_tuple in combinations(V, size):
S = set(S_tuple)
key = frozenset(S)
if key in seen: continue
seen.add(key)
if nx.is_bipartite(G.subgraph(S)) and \
nx.is_bipartite(G.subgraph(set(V) - S)):
return True
return False
def analyze(n, use_fast=False, verbose=True):
print(f"\n{'='*60}\nn = {n}\n{'='*60}")
t0 = time.time()
reps = (enumerate_all_triangulations_fast(n) if use_fast
else enumerate_all_triangulations(n))
md4_idx = set(i for i, G in enumerate(reps) if min_degree(G) >= 4)
print(f"{len(reps)} iso-classes, {len(md4_idx)} md4")
splits = achievable_parity_splits(reps)
achievable_sizes = set(s for s, _ in splits)
print(f"Achievable parity splits: {sorted(splits)}")
print(f"Achievable sizes: {sorted(achievable_sizes)}")
print(f"\nReachability under NEW definition:")
reachable, unreachable_md4 = [], []
for i, G in enumerate(reps):
if has_bipartite_partition(G, achievable_sizes):
reachable.append(i)
elif i in md4_idx:
unreachable_md4.append(i)
if verbose and i not in reachable and i in md4_idx:
deg = sorted((d for _, d in G.degree()), reverse=True)
print(f" T{i} (md4, deg {deg}): UNREACHABLE")
not_reachable = set(range(len(reps))) - set(reachable)
print(f"Reachable: {len(reachable)}/{len(reps)}")
print(f"md4 reachable: {len(md4_idx & set(reachable))}/{len(md4_idx)}")
if not_reachable:
print(f"Unreachable iso-classes: {sorted(not_reachable)}")
for i in sorted(not_reachable):
deg = sorted((d for _, d in reps[i].degree()), reverse=True)
marker = " (md4)" if i in md4_idx else ""
print(f" T{i}: degree {deg}{marker}")
print(f"Time: {time.time()-t0:.1f}s")
return reachable, unreachable_md4
if __name__ == "__main__":
for n in [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]:
analyze(n, use_fast=(n >= 11))
@@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
"""
Double counting at the face/source level.
For each (G_iso, source-up-to-aut, flip choice), apply the resolution and
track which G'_iso it lands on. Then aggregate.
For each md4 target G' we report:
- N_iso(G') = # distinct preimage iso-classes G that resolve to G'
- N_paths(G') = # distinct (G_iso, source orbit, flip choice) triples
For each source G we report:
- f(G) = # (source, flip choice) pairs producing any md4 target
"""
import sys; sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude/build')
import networkx as nx
from collections import defaultdict
from itertools import product as iproduct
from triangulation_gen import enumerate_all_triangulations
from triangulation_gen_fast import enumerate_all_triangulations_fast
from level_cycles import (
compute_levels, get_all_faces, get_level_cycles_by_parity,
get_flip_candidates, level_sources,
)
def min_degree(G):
return min(d for _, d in G.degree())
def iso_class(G, reps):
for i, r in enumerate(reps):
if nx.is_isomorphic(G, r):
return i
return -1
def all_resolutions(G):
"""Yield (G_resolved, source_kind, source_label) for every resolution.
Equivalent paths are NOT deduplicated here — caller can do so via iso."""
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: return
for kind, label, source_set in level_sources(G, emb):
levels = compute_levels(G, source_set)
odd_cycles, even_cycles = get_level_cycles_by_parity(G, emb, levels)
cand_lists = []
ok = True
for cycle in odd_cycles:
cands = get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle)
if not cands: ok = False; break
cand_lists.append(cands)
if not ok: continue
for cycle in even_cycles:
cands = get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle)
cand_lists.append(cands + [None])
if not cand_lists:
yield (G.copy(), kind, label); continue
for choices in iproduct(*cand_lists):
Gp = G.copy()
applied = set(); ok2 = True
for c in choices:
if c is None: continue
u, v, w, x = c
if frozenset([u,v]) in applied: ok2 = False; break
if not Gp.has_edge(u, v) or Gp.has_edge(w, x): ok2 = False; break
Gp.remove_edge(u, v); Gp.add_edge(w, x)
applied.add(frozenset([u, v]))
if not ok2: continue
ipp, _ = nx.check_planarity(Gp)
if not ipp: continue
yield (Gp, kind, label)
def analyze(n, use_fast=False):
print(f"\n{'='*70}\nn = {n}\n{'='*70}")
if use_fast:
reps = enumerate_all_triangulations_fast(n)
else:
reps = enumerate_all_triangulations(n)
md4_idx = [i for i, G in enumerate(reps) if min_degree(G) >= 4]
md4_set = set(md4_idx)
# For each source iso-class, compute # paths to each target iso-class
pre_count = defaultdict(lambda: defaultdict(int)) # target -> source -> count
src_paths_md4 = defaultdict(int) # source -> total paths landing on md4
print(f"Computing resolutions for {len(reps)} sources...", flush=True)
for src_i, G in enumerate(reps):
# Compute all distinct (target iso, source orbit) pairs from this G
for Gp, kind, label in all_resolutions(G):
tgt = iso_class(Gp, reps)
if tgt < 0: continue
pre_count[tgt][src_i] += 1
if tgt in md4_set:
src_paths_md4[src_i] += 1
# Report by md4 target
print(f"\n{'target':28s} {'N_iso':>6} {'N_paths':>9} {'min path/iso':>14}")
print("-" * 70)
for tgt in md4_idx:
deg = sorted((d for _, d in reps[tgt].degree()), reverse=True)
sources_hitting = list(pre_count[tgt].keys())
N_iso = len(sources_hitting)
N_paths = sum(pre_count[tgt].values())
min_paths_per_src = (min(pre_count[tgt].values())
if sources_hitting else 0)
print(f"{str(deg):28s} {N_iso:>6} {N_paths:>9} {min_paths_per_src:>14}")
# Double-counting check:
total_md4_paths = sum(sum(d.values()) for d in pre_count.values()
if any(k in md4_set for k in [...]))
# Simpler total
total_paths = sum(src_paths_md4.values())
avg_per_target = total_paths / len(md4_idx) if md4_idx else 0
print("-" * 70)
print(f"Total md4 paths: {total_paths}")
print(f"Average per md4 target: {avg_per_target:.1f}")
if md4_idx:
min_N_iso = min(len(pre_count[t]) for t in md4_idx)
print(f"Minimum N_iso over md4 targets: {min_N_iso}")
return pre_count, md4_idx
if __name__ == "__main__":
for n in [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]:
analyze(n, use_fast=(n >= 10))
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
"""
4-color G' using the level structure from G:
- Even-level subgraph: 2-color with RED/BLUE via BFS
- Odd-level subgraph: 2-color with YELLOW/GREEN via BFS
This succeeds iff each parity subgraph is bipartite — which is the goal of
the level resolution. If a parity subgraph contains an odd cycle, BFS will
find a conflict and we report which edge violates the 2-coloring.
"""
import networkx as nx
import numpy as np
from collections import deque
def two_color_subgraph(G_sub, color_a, color_b):
"""
Two-color the (possibly disconnected) subgraph via BFS, alternating
color_a / color_b by BFS distance parity from a root in each component.
Returns:
coloring: dict[node, color]
bad_edges: list of edges where adjacent vertices got the same colour
(empty iff subgraph is bipartite)
"""
coloring = {}
bad_edges = []
for start in G_sub.nodes():
if start in coloring:
continue
coloring[start] = color_a
queue = deque([start])
while queue:
v = queue.popleft()
for w in G_sub.neighbors(v):
if w not in coloring:
coloring[w] = color_b if coloring[v] == color_a else color_a
queue.append(w)
elif coloring[w] == coloring[v]:
e = tuple(sorted([v, w]))
if e not in bad_edges:
bad_edges.append(e)
return coloring, bad_edges
def four_color_via_levels(G_prime, levels):
"""
4-color G' using level labels from G.
Even-level vertices get RED/BLUE; odd-level get YELLOW/GREEN.
Returns:
coloring: dict[node, str]
bad_edges: dict with keys 'even', 'odd', 'cross' for violations
within each parity subgraph and between them
(the cross list should always be empty by construction)
"""
even_nodes = [v for v in G_prime.nodes() if levels[v] % 2 == 0]
odd_nodes = [v for v in G_prime.nodes() if levels[v] % 2 == 1]
even_sub = G_prime.subgraph(even_nodes).copy()
odd_sub = G_prime.subgraph(odd_nodes).copy()
coloring_even, bad_even = two_color_subgraph(even_sub, 'red', 'blue')
coloring_odd, bad_odd = two_color_subgraph(odd_sub, 'yellow', 'green')
coloring = {**coloring_even, **coloring_odd}
cross_bad = []
for u, v in G_prime.edges():
if coloring[u] == coloring[v]:
cross_bad.append(tuple(sorted([u, v])))
return coloring, {
'even': bad_even,
'odd': bad_odd,
'cross': [e for e in cross_bad
if tuple(sorted(e)) not in bad_even
and tuple(sorted(e)) not in bad_odd],
}
if __name__ == "__main__":
# Quick demo on the n=7 graph used earlier
edges = [(0,1),(0,2),(0,3),(0,4),(0,5),(0,6),
(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5),(1,6),
(2,3),(2,4),(3,5),(4,6)]
G = nx.Graph(); G.add_nodes_from(range(7)); G.add_edges_from(edges)
Gp = G.copy(); Gp.remove_edge(1, 2); Gp.add_edge(4, 3)
levels = {0:0, 3:0, 5:0, 1:1, 2:1, 4:1, 6:1}
coloring, bad = four_color_via_levels(Gp, levels)
print("Coloring:")
for v in sorted(coloring):
print(f" vertex {v} (level {levels[v]}): {coloring[v]}")
print(f"\nBad edges in even subgraph: {bad['even']}")
print(f"Bad edges in odd subgraph: {bad['odd']}")
print(f"Cross-parity bad edges: {bad['cross']}")
print(f"\nValid 4-coloring: "
f"{not any(bad.values())}")
@@ -0,0 +1,256 @@
"""
For each n=7 example (G → G' covering all 5 iso-classes), apply the level
4-coloring to G' using levels from G, and visualize.
"""
import sys; sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude')
import networkx as nx
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import matplotlib.patches as mpatches
import numpy as np
from collections import deque
from itertools import combinations, product as iproduct
from balanced_layout import balanced_planar_layout, _get_all_faces
from four_color import four_color_via_levels
def compute_levels(G, outer_face):
levels, queue = {}, deque()
for v in outer_face:
levels[v] = 0; queue.append(v)
while queue:
v = queue.popleft()
for w in G.neighbors(v):
if w not in levels:
levels[w] = levels[v] + 1; queue.append(w)
return levels
def get_odd_level_cycles(emb, levels):
odd = []
for face in _get_all_faces(emb):
lv = {levels.get(v) for v in face}
if len(lv) == 1 and None not in lv and len(face) % 2 == 1:
odd.append(face)
return odd
def get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle):
cands = []
n = len(cycle)
for i in range(n):
u, v = cycle[i], cycle[(i+1) % n]
if not G.has_edge(u, v): continue
f1 = emb.traverse_face(u, v); f2 = emb.traverse_face(v, u)
if len(f1) != 3 or len(f2) != 3: continue
w = next(x for x in f1 if x != u and x != v)
x = next(y for y in f2 if y != u and y != v)
if w == x or G.has_edge(w, x): continue
cands.append((u, v, w, x))
return cands
def is_triangulation(G):
n = G.number_of_nodes()
if G.number_of_edges() != 3*n - 6: return False
if not nx.is_connected(G): return False
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: return False
seen = set()
for v in emb.nodes():
for w in emb[v]:
if (v, w) not in seen:
f = emb.traverse_face(v, w)
for i in range(len(f)):
seen.add((f[i], f[(i+1) % len(f)]))
if len(f) != 3: return False
return True
# ── Reps ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
nodes = list(range(7))
all_edges = list(combinations(nodes, 2))
reps = []
for sub in combinations(all_edges, 15):
G = nx.Graph(); G.add_nodes_from(nodes); G.add_edges_from(sub)
if is_triangulation(G):
if all(not nx.is_isomorphic(G, r) for r in reps):
reps.append(G)
if len(reps) == 5: break
def iso_class(G):
for i, r in enumerate(reps):
if nx.is_isomorphic(G, r): return i
return -1
# Same pairs as before
desired_pairs = [(0, 2), (1, 4), (2, 0), (3, 1), (4, 3)]
def find_example(src_idx, tgt_idx):
G = reps[src_idx]
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
for outer_face in _get_all_faces(emb):
levels = compute_levels(G, outer_face)
odd_cycles = get_odd_level_cycles(emb, levels)
if not odd_cycles: continue
candidate_lists = []
ok = True
for cycle in odd_cycles:
cands = get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle)
if not cands: ok = False; break
candidate_lists.append(cands)
if not ok: continue
for choices in iproduct(*candidate_lists):
Gp = G.copy()
valid = True
for u, v, w, x in choices:
if not Gp.has_edge(u, v) or Gp.has_edge(w, x):
valid = False; break
Gp.remove_edge(u, v); Gp.add_edge(w, x)
if valid and is_triangulation(Gp) and iso_class(Gp) == tgt_idx:
return G, outer_face, choices, Gp
return None
examples = [find_example(s, t) for s, t in desired_pairs]
print("Examples found:", sum(1 for e in examples if e is not None))
# ── 4-color and visualize ────────────────────────────────────────────────────
color_hex = {'red':'#e53935','blue':'#1e88e5',
'yellow':'#fdd835','green':'#43a047'}
fig, axes = plt.subplots(len(examples), 2, figsize=(14, 5.5 * len(examples)))
if len(examples) == 1:
axes = np.array([axes])
print("\nColoring each G':")
for row, ex in enumerate(examples):
if ex is None: continue
G, outer_face, choices, Gp = ex
src, tgt = desired_pairs[row]
levels_G = compute_levels(G, outer_face)
coloring, bad = four_color_via_levels(Gp, levels_G)
valid = not any(bad.values())
print(f" T{src}→T{tgt}: valid 4-coloring = {valid}")
if not valid:
print(f" bad even: {bad['even']}, bad odd: {bad['odd']}")
# Layout for G and G'
_, emb_G = nx.check_planarity(G)
_, emb_p = nx.check_planarity(Gp)
Gp_faces = _get_all_faces(emb_p)
outer_set = set(outer_face)
Gp_outer = max(Gp_faces,
key=lambda f: (len(set(f) & outer_set), -len(f)))
pos_G = balanced_planar_layout(G, outer_face, n_explore=4000,
n_refine=2000, seed=42 + src)
pos_Gp = balanced_planar_layout(Gp, Gp_outer, n_explore=4000,
n_refine=2000, seed=42 + tgt)
# ── Draw G on the left (no 4-coloring; just structure) ────────────────
ax_G = axes[row, 0]
odd_cycles_G = get_odd_level_cycles(emb_G, levels_G)
ax_G.add_patch(plt.Polygon([pos_G[v] for v in outer_face], closed=True,
facecolor='#E3F2FD', alpha=0.5,
edgecolor='none', zorder=0))
for cycle in odd_cycles_G:
if set(cycle) == outer_set: continue
ax_G.add_patch(plt.Polygon([pos_G[v] for v in cycle], closed=True,
facecolor='#FFF9C4', alpha=0.6,
edgecolor='none', zorder=0))
flip_edges_G = set(frozenset([u, v]) for u, v, _, _ in choices)
for u, v in G.edges():
if frozenset([u, v]) in flip_edges_G:
nx.draw_networkx_edges(G, pos_G, edgelist=[(u, v)], ax=ax_G,
edge_color='#e53935', width=3.5,
style='dashed')
elif levels_G[u] == levels_G[v]:
nx.draw_networkx_edges(G, pos_G, edgelist=[(u, v)], ax=ax_G,
edge_color='#2196F3', width=2.5)
else:
nx.draw_networkx_edges(G, pos_G, edgelist=[(u, v)], ax=ax_G,
edge_color='#bdbdbd', width=1.5)
# Nodes by level (un-coloured)
level_palette = ['#1565C0', '#E65100', '#2E7D32']
node_lv_cols = [level_palette[min(levels_G[v], len(level_palette)-1)]
for v in G.nodes()]
nx.draw_networkx_nodes(G, pos_G, ax=ax_G, node_color=node_lv_cols,
node_size=550)
nx.draw_networkx_labels(G, pos_G, ax=ax_G, font_size=11,
font_color='white', font_weight='bold')
for v, p in pos_G.items():
ax_G.annotate(f'L{levels_G[v]}', xy=p + np.array([0.07, 0.07]),
fontsize=8, color='#333', zorder=5)
flip_str = ", ".join(f"({u},{v})→({w},{x})" for u, v, w, x in choices)
ax_G.set_title(f"G (T{src}) | outer face {outer_face}\n"
f"flips: {flip_str}",
fontsize=9, fontweight='bold', pad=8)
ax_G.set_xlim(-1.5, 1.5); ax_G.set_ylim(-1.5, 1.5)
ax_G.set_aspect('equal'); ax_G.axis('off')
# ── Draw G' on the right (4-coloured) ─────────────────────────────────
ax = axes[row, 1]
ax.add_patch(plt.Polygon([pos_Gp[v] for v in Gp_outer], closed=True,
facecolor='#ECEFF1', alpha=0.6,
edgecolor='none', zorder=0))
bad_edge_set = set()
for e in bad['even'] + bad['odd'] + bad['cross']:
bad_edge_set.add(frozenset(e))
for u, v in Gp.edges():
key = frozenset([u, v])
same_level = levels_G[u] == levels_G[v]
if key in bad_edge_set:
nx.draw_networkx_edges(Gp, pos_Gp, edgelist=[(u, v)], ax=ax,
edge_color='#000', width=4.0)
elif same_level:
nx.draw_networkx_edges(Gp, pos_Gp, edgelist=[(u, v)], ax=ax,
edge_color='#666', width=2.5)
else:
nx.draw_networkx_edges(Gp, pos_Gp, edgelist=[(u, v)], ax=ax,
edge_color='#bdbdbd', width=1.5)
node_colors_4 = [color_hex[coloring[v]] for v in Gp.nodes()]
nx.draw_networkx_nodes(Gp, pos_Gp, ax=ax,
node_color=node_colors_4,
edgecolors='black', linewidths=2,
node_size=600)
nx.draw_networkx_labels(Gp, pos_Gp, ax=ax, font_size=11,
font_color='white', font_weight='bold')
for v, p in pos_Gp.items():
ax.annotate(f'L{levels_G[v]}', xy=p + np.array([0.07, 0.07]),
fontsize=8, color='#333', zorder=5)
title = (f"G' (T{tgt}) | layout outer {Gp_outer}\n"
f"valid 4-coloring: {valid}")
if not valid:
title += f"\nconflicts: even={bad['even']} odd={bad['odd']}"
ax.set_title(title, fontsize=9, fontweight='bold', pad=8)
ax.set_xlim(-1.5, 1.5); ax.set_ylim(-1.5, 1.5)
ax.set_aspect('equal'); ax.axis('off')
legend_elements = [
mpatches.Patch(facecolor='#E3F2FD', edgecolor='none',
label="G outer face"),
mpatches.Patch(facecolor='#FFF9C4', edgecolor='none',
label='G odd level cycle'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#e53935', lw=3.0, ls='dashed',
label='Edge flipped out (in G)'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#2196F3', lw=2.5, label='Level edge'),
mpatches.Patch(facecolor=color_hex['red'], edgecolor='black',
label="G' red (even-level)"),
mpatches.Patch(facecolor=color_hex['blue'], edgecolor='black',
label="G' blue (even-level)"),
mpatches.Patch(facecolor=color_hex['yellow'], edgecolor='black',
label="G' yellow (odd-level)"),
mpatches.Patch(facecolor=color_hex['green'], edgecolor='black',
label="G' green (odd-level)"),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#000', lw=4.0,
label='Coloring conflict edge'),
]
fig.legend(handles=legend_elements, loc='lower center', ncol=4,
fontsize=10, bbox_to_anchor=(0.5, -0.002))
plt.suptitle("4-coloring of G' using levels of G "
"(even=red/blue, odd=yellow/green)",
fontsize=13, fontweight='bold', y=1.0)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('/mnt/user-data/outputs/four_color.png',
dpi=130, bbox_inches='tight')
print("\nSaved.")
@@ -0,0 +1,173 @@
"""
Level cycle computation for maximal planar graphs.
Definitions
-----------
- Level source: either (a) a face of G [all face vertices at level 0]
or (b) a degree-3 vertex of G [singleton at level 0]
- Levels: BFS distance from the level source.
- Level cycle: simple face of the level subgraph L_k (subgraph induced by
level-k vertices) in the embedding inherited from G's planar embedding.
- Level resolution: G' obtained from G by flipping
- exactly one edge per ODD level cycle (mandatory)
- at most one edge per EVEN level cycle (optional)
"""
import networkx as nx
from collections import deque, defaultdict
from itertools import product as iproduct
def compute_levels(G, source_set):
"""BFS levels from any iterable of source vertices."""
levels, queue = {}, deque()
for v in source_set:
levels[v] = 0
queue.append(v)
while queue:
v = queue.popleft()
for w in G.neighbors(v):
if w not in levels:
levels[w] = levels[v] + 1
queue.append(w)
return levels
def get_all_faces(emb):
seen, faces = set(), []
for v in emb.nodes():
for w in emb[v]:
if (v, w) not in seen:
face = emb.traverse_face(v, w)
for i in range(len(face)):
seen.add((face[i], face[(i+1) % len(face)]))
faces.append(tuple(face))
return faces
def inherited_embedding(emb_G, sub_nodes):
"""PlanarEmbedding of the induced subgraph with inherited cyclic order."""
sub_set = set(sub_nodes)
emb = nx.PlanarEmbedding()
for v in sub_nodes:
emb.add_node(v)
for v in sub_nodes:
cw = [w for w in emb_G.neighbors_cw_order(v) if w in sub_set]
prev = None
for w in cw:
if prev is None:
emb.add_half_edge_first(v, w)
else:
emb.add_half_edge_cw(v, w, prev)
prev = w
return emb
def _is_simple(face):
return len(set(face)) == len(face)
def get_level_cycles_by_parity(G, emb_G, levels):
"""Simple faces of each L_k, split by length parity."""
by_level = defaultdict(list)
for v, lv in levels.items():
by_level[lv].append(v)
odd, even, seen = [], [], set()
for k, nodes_k in by_level.items():
if len(nodes_k) < 3:
continue
L_k = G.subgraph(nodes_k)
if L_k.number_of_edges() < 3:
continue
try:
emb_L = inherited_embedding(emb_G, nodes_k)
faces = get_all_faces(emb_L)
except Exception:
ip, emb_L = nx.check_planarity(L_k)
if not ip:
continue
faces = get_all_faces(emb_L)
for face in faces:
if not _is_simple(face):
continue
rots = [tuple(face[i:] + face[:i]) for i in range(len(face))] \
+ [tuple(face[::-1][i:] + face[::-1][:i])
for i in range(len(face))]
canon = min(rots)
if canon in seen:
continue
seen.add(canon)
(odd if len(face) % 2 else even).append(face)
return odd, even
def get_flip_candidates(G, emb_G, cycle):
"""Valid edge flips along a level cycle."""
cands = []
n = len(cycle)
for i in range(n):
u, v = cycle[i], cycle[(i+1) % n]
if not G.has_edge(u, v):
continue
f1 = emb_G.traverse_face(u, v)
f2 = emb_G.traverse_face(v, u)
if len(f1) != 3 or len(f2) != 3:
continue
w = next(x for x in f1 if x != u and x != v)
x = next(y for y in f2 if y != u and y != v)
if w == x or G.has_edge(w, x):
continue
cands.append((u, v, w, x))
return cands
def level_sources(G, emb_G):
"""Yield every valid level source as (kind, label, vertex_set)."""
for face in get_all_faces(emb_G):
yield ('face', tuple(face), set(face))
for v in G.nodes():
if G.degree(v) == 3:
yield ('vertex', v, {v})
def all_level_resolutions(G):
"""Yield (G', source_kind, source_label, choices) for every resolution."""
is_planar, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not is_planar:
return
for kind, label, source_set in level_sources(G, emb):
levels = compute_levels(G, source_set)
odd_cycles, even_cycles = get_level_cycles_by_parity(G, emb, levels)
if not odd_cycles and not even_cycles:
yield (G.copy(), kind, label, [])
continue
cand_lists, ok = [], True
for cycle in odd_cycles:
cands = get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle)
if not cands:
ok = False
break
cand_lists.append(cands)
if not ok:
continue
for cycle in even_cycles:
cands = get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle)
cand_lists.append(cands + [None])
for choices in iproduct(*cand_lists):
Gp = G.copy()
applied, ok2 = set(), True
for choice in choices:
if choice is None:
continue
u, v, w, x = choice
if frozenset([u, v]) in applied:
ok2 = False; break
if not Gp.has_edge(u, v) or Gp.has_edge(w, x):
ok2 = False; break
Gp.remove_edge(u, v)
Gp.add_edge(w, x)
applied.add(frozenset([u, v]))
if not ok2:
continue
ip2, _ = nx.check_planarity(Gp)
if ip2:
yield (Gp, kind, label, [c for c in choices if c is not None])
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
"""
Process a chunk of source indices at n=11. Save accumulating results to JSON.
Usage: python3 n11_chunk.py <start> <end>
"""
import sys, os, json, time
sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude/build')
from coverage_fast import (
enumerate_all_triangulations_fast, build_iso_index,
resolution_classes_fast, min_degree,
)
import pickle
STATE_PKL = '/tmp/n11_state.pkl'
RESULTS_JSON = '/tmp/n11_results.json'
# Load or build state
if os.path.exists(STATE_PKL):
with open(STATE_PKL, 'rb') as f:
state = pickle.load(f)
reps = state['reps']; iso_index = state['iso_index']
print(f"Loaded {len(reps)} reps from cache")
else:
t0 = time.time()
reps = enumerate_all_triangulations_fast(11)
iso_index = build_iso_index(reps)
print(f"Built {len(reps)} reps in {time.time()-t0:.1f}s")
with open(STATE_PKL, 'wb') as f:
pickle.dump({'reps': reps, 'iso_index': iso_index}, f)
# Load partial results
if os.path.exists(RESULTS_JSON):
with open(RESULTS_JSON) as f:
results = {int(k): v for k, v in json.load(f).items()}
else:
results = {}
start = int(sys.argv[1]); end = int(sys.argv[2])
end = min(end, len(reps))
t1 = time.time()
for i in range(start, end):
if i in results:
continue
res = resolution_classes_fast(reps[i], iso_index)
results[i] = sorted(res)
if (i + 1) % 25 == 0:
elapsed = time.time() - t1
done = i + 1 - start
eta = elapsed * (end - start - done) / max(done, 1)
print(f" {i+1}/{end} ({elapsed:.0f}s, ETA {eta:.0f}s)", flush=True)
if (i + 1) % 50 == 0:
with open(RESULTS_JSON, 'w') as f:
json.dump({str(k): v for k, v in results.items()}, f)
with open(RESULTS_JSON, 'w') as f:
json.dump({str(k): v for k, v in results.items()}, f)
print(f"Saved {len(results)} source results. Range [{start},{end}). "
f"Chunk time: {time.time()-t1:.1f}s")
@@ -0,0 +1,251 @@
"""
Generate G → G' examples covering all 5 iso-classes on n=7,
each as source and as target. Uses balanced planar layout.
"""
import sys
sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude')
import networkx as nx
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import matplotlib.patches as mpatches
import numpy as np
from collections import deque
from itertools import combinations, product as iproduct
from balanced_layout import balanced_planar_layout, _get_all_faces
# ── Helpers ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
def compute_levels(G, outer_face):
levels, queue = {}, deque()
for v in outer_face:
levels[v] = 0; queue.append(v)
while queue:
v = queue.popleft()
for w in G.neighbors(v):
if w not in levels:
levels[w] = levels[v] + 1; queue.append(w)
return levels
def get_odd_level_cycles(emb, levels):
odd = []
for face in _get_all_faces(emb):
lv = {levels.get(v) for v in face}
if len(lv) == 1 and None not in lv and len(face) % 2 == 1:
odd.append(face)
return odd
def get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle):
cands = []
n = len(cycle)
for i in range(n):
u, v = cycle[i], cycle[(i+1) % n]
if not G.has_edge(u, v): continue
f1 = emb.traverse_face(u, v); f2 = emb.traverse_face(v, u)
if len(f1) != 3 or len(f2) != 3: continue
w = next(x for x in f1 if x != u and x != v)
x = next(y for y in f2 if y != u and y != v)
if w == x or G.has_edge(w, x): continue
cands.append((u, v, w, x))
return cands
def is_triangulation(G):
n = G.number_of_nodes()
if G.number_of_edges() != 3*n - 6: return False
if not nx.is_connected(G): return False
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: return False
seen = set()
for v in emb.nodes():
for w in emb[v]:
if (v, w) not in seen:
f = emb.traverse_face(v, w)
for i in range(len(f)):
seen.add((f[i], f[(i+1) % len(f)]))
if len(f) != 3: return False
return True
# ── Enumerate iso-class representatives for n=7 ──────────────────────────────
print("Enumerating triangulations on 7 vertices...")
nodes = list(range(7))
all_edges = list(combinations(nodes, 2))
reps = []
for sub in combinations(all_edges, 15):
G = nx.Graph(); G.add_nodes_from(nodes); G.add_edges_from(sub)
if is_triangulation(G):
if all(not nx.is_isomorphic(G, r) for r in reps):
reps.append(G)
if len(reps) == 5: break
print(f"Found {len(reps)} reps.")
for i, G in enumerate(reps):
deg_seq = sorted((d for _, d in G.degree()), reverse=True)
print(f" T{i}: degree {deg_seq}")
def iso_class(G):
for i, r in enumerate(reps):
if nx.is_isomorphic(G, r): return i
return -1
# ── Find one (G_source, outer_face, flip, G_target) for each desired pair ───
desired_pairs = [
(0, 2), # T0 -> T2
(1, 4), # T1 -> T4
(2, 0), # T2 -> T0
(3, 1), # T3 -> T1
(4, 3), # T4 -> T3
]
def find_example(src_idx, tgt_idx):
G = reps[src_idx]
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
for outer_face in _get_all_faces(emb):
levels = compute_levels(G, outer_face)
odd_cycles = get_odd_level_cycles(emb, levels)
if not odd_cycles: continue
candidate_lists = []
ok = True
for cycle in odd_cycles:
cands = get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle)
if not cands: ok = False; break
candidate_lists.append(cands)
if not ok: continue
for choices in iproduct(*candidate_lists):
Gp = G.copy()
valid = True
for u, v, w, x in choices:
if not Gp.has_edge(u, v) or Gp.has_edge(w, x):
valid = False; break
Gp.remove_edge(u, v); Gp.add_edge(w, x)
if valid and is_triangulation(Gp) and iso_class(Gp) == tgt_idx:
return G, outer_face, choices, Gp
return None
print("\nFinding example flips for each pair:")
examples = []
for src, tgt in desired_pairs:
ex = find_example(src, tgt)
if ex is None:
print(f" T{src} -> T{tgt}: NO EXAMPLE FOUND")
continue
G, outer_face, choices, Gp = ex
print(f" T{src} -> T{tgt}: outer={outer_face}, flips={list(choices)}")
examples.append((src, tgt, G, outer_face, choices, Gp))
# ── Layout and plot ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
print("\nComputing balanced layouts (this takes a minute)...")
fig, axes = plt.subplots(len(examples), 2, figsize=(13, 5.5 * len(examples)))
if len(examples) == 1:
axes = np.array([axes])
palette = ['#1565C0', '#E65100', '#2E7D32']
for row, (src, tgt, G, outer_face, choices, Gp) in enumerate(examples):
levels = compute_levels(G, outer_face)
_, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
_, emb_p = nx.check_planarity(Gp)
odd_cycles_G = get_odd_level_cycles(emb, levels)
# Re-compute levels for Gp using the same outer face (same level-0 vertices)
levels_p = compute_levels(Gp, outer_face)
odd_cycles_Gp = get_odd_level_cycles(emb_p, levels_p)
pos_G = balanced_planar_layout(G, outer_face, n_explore=4000,
n_refine=2000, seed=42 + src)
# G' may have a different planar embedding; the original outer face
# might no longer be a face. Pick a face of G' that maximally overlaps
# the original outer face vertices.
Gp_faces = _get_all_faces(emb_p)
outer_set_orig = set(outer_face)
Gp_outer = max(Gp_faces,
key=lambda f: (len(set(f) & outer_set_orig), -len(f)))
pos_Gp = balanced_planar_layout(Gp, Gp_outer, n_explore=4000,
n_refine=2000, seed=42 + tgt)
print(f" T{src}→T{tgt}: layouts done")
flip_edges = set(frozenset([u, v]) for u, v, _, _ in choices)
new_edges = set(frozenset([w, x]) for _, _, w, x in choices)
def classify_G(e):
if frozenset(e) in flip_edges: return 'flip'
eu, ev = e
if levels.get(eu) == levels.get(ev): return 'level'
return 'normal'
def classify_Gp(e):
if frozenset(e) in new_edges: return 'new'
eu, ev = e
if levels_p.get(eu) == levels_p.get(ev): return 'level'
return 'normal'
outer_set = set(outer_face)
def draw(ax, Gd, pos, levels_d, odd_cycles_d, classifier, of, title):
# Outer face
ax.add_patch(plt.Polygon([pos[nd] for nd in of],
closed=True, facecolor='#E3F2FD',
alpha=0.5, edgecolor='none', zorder=0))
# Interior odd cycles
of_set = set(of)
for cycle in odd_cycles_d:
if set(cycle) == of_set: continue
ax.add_patch(plt.Polygon([pos[nd] for nd in cycle],
closed=True, facecolor='#FFF9C4',
alpha=0.6, edgecolor='none', zorder=0))
# Edges
cats = {'normal': [], 'level': [], 'flip': [], 'new': []}
for e in Gd.edges():
cats[classifier(e)].append(e)
style = {
'normal': dict(edge_color='#bdbdbd', width=1.5),
'level': dict(edge_color='#2196F3', width=2.5),
'flip': dict(edge_color='#e53935', width=3.5, style='dashed'),
'new': dict(edge_color='#43a047', width=3.5),
}
for cat, eds in cats.items():
if eds:
nx.draw_networkx_edges(Gd, pos, edgelist=eds, ax=ax,
**style[cat])
# Nodes coloured by level
node_colors = [palette[min(levels_d.get(nd, 0), len(palette)-1)]
for nd in Gd.nodes()]
nx.draw_networkx_nodes(Gd, pos, ax=ax, node_color=node_colors,
node_size=450)
nx.draw_networkx_labels(Gd, pos, ax=ax, font_size=11,
font_color='white', font_weight='bold')
for nd, p in pos.items():
lv = levels_d.get(nd, '?')
ax.annotate(f'L{lv}', xy=p + np.array([0.06, 0.06]),
fontsize=7, color='#444', zorder=5)
ax.set_title(title, fontsize=10, fontweight='bold', pad=8)
ax.set_xlim(-1.5, 1.5); ax.set_ylim(-1.5, 1.5)
ax.set_aspect('equal'); ax.axis('off')
flip_str = ", ".join(f"({u},{v})→({w},{x})" for u,v,w,x in choices)
draw(axes[row, 0], G, pos_G, levels, odd_cycles_G, classify_G,
outer_face,
f"G (T{src}) | outer face {outer_face}\nflip: {flip_str}")
draw(axes[row, 1], Gp, pos_Gp, levels_p, odd_cycles_Gp, classify_Gp,
Gp_outer,
f"G' (T{tgt}) | outer face {Gp_outer}")
legend_elements = [
mpatches.Patch(facecolor='#E3F2FD', edgecolor='none', label='Outer face'),
mpatches.Patch(facecolor='#FFF9C4', edgecolor='none', label='Odd level cycle'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#bdbdbd', lw=1.5, label='Normal edge'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#2196F3', lw=2.5, label='Level edge'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#e53935', lw=3.0, ls='dashed',
label='Removed edge'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#43a047', lw=3.0, label='Added edge'),
]
fig.legend(handles=legend_elements, loc='lower center', ncol=6,
fontsize=10, bbox_to_anchor=(0.5, -0.005))
plt.suptitle(
"Level resolutions on n=7 | every iso-class appears as source and target",
fontsize=14, fontweight='bold', y=1.0)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('/mnt/user-data/outputs/n7_all_classes.png',
dpi=130, bbox_inches='tight')
print("\nSaved.")
@@ -0,0 +1,123 @@
"""
Extended orbit-counting framework: REVERSE-FLIPS ON ANY SET OF EDGES.
For each md4 target G' and each k ∈ {1, 2, ...}:
- Enumerate distinct (up to iso) k-flip reverse-preimages G of G'
- For each, check if G level-resolves to G' via any source
Surjectivity at G' = some k and some preimage works.
Includes a critical test: the icosahedron at n=12 (no deg-4 vertices).
"""
import sys; sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude/build')
import networkx as nx
import time
from collections import defaultdict
from itertools import combinations, product as iproduct
from level_cycles import (
compute_levels, get_all_faces, get_level_cycles_by_parity,
get_flip_candidates, level_sources,
)
def reverse_flip_edge(G_prime, e):
u, v = tuple(e)
if not G_prime.has_edge(u, v): return None
_, emb = nx.check_planarity(G_prime)
f1 = emb.traverse_face(u, v); f2 = emb.traverse_face(v, u)
if len(f1) != 3 or len(f2) != 3: return None
a = next(x for x in f1 if x != u and x != v)
b = next(x for x in f2 if x != u and x != v)
if a == b or G_prime.has_edge(a, b): return None
G = G_prime.copy()
G.remove_edge(u, v); G.add_edge(a, b)
ip, _ = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: return None
return G
def k_flip_preimages_iso(G_prime, k):
"""Yield distinct (up to iso) triangulations obtainable from G_prime by
k successive reverse-flips."""
seen = [G_prime]
frontier = [G_prime]
for step in range(k):
new_frontier = []
new_seen = []
for H in frontier:
for e in list(H.edges()):
Hp = reverse_flip_edge(H, frozenset(e))
if Hp is None: continue
if any(nx.is_isomorphic(Hp, S) for S in seen + new_seen):
continue
new_seen.append(Hp)
new_frontier.append(Hp)
seen.extend(new_seen)
frontier = new_frontier
if not frontier: break
return frontier # candidates at depth EXACTLY k
def resolves_to_target(G, target):
"""Does G level-resolve to iso(target) via any source?"""
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: return False
for kind, label, source_set in level_sources(G, emb):
levels = compute_levels(G, source_set)
odd_cycles, even_cycles = get_level_cycles_by_parity(G, emb, levels)
cand_lists, ok = [], True
for cycle in odd_cycles:
cands = get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle)
if not cands: ok = False; break
cand_lists.append(cands)
if not ok: continue
for cycle in even_cycles:
cands = get_flip_candidates(G, emb, cycle)
cand_lists.append(cands + [None])
if not cand_lists:
if nx.is_isomorphic(G, target): return True
continue
for choices in iproduct(*cand_lists):
Gp = G.copy(); applied = set(); ok2 = True
for c in choices:
if c is None: continue
u, v, w, x = c
if frozenset([u,v]) in applied: ok2 = False; break
if not Gp.has_edge(u, v) or Gp.has_edge(w, x): ok2 = False; break
Gp.remove_edge(u, v); Gp.add_edge(w, x)
applied.add(frozenset([u, v]))
if not ok2: continue
ipp, _ = nx.check_planarity(Gp)
if not ipp: continue
if nx.is_isomorphic(Gp, target): return True
return False
def check_target(G_prime, k_max=3, label=""):
"""For target G_prime, scan k=1, 2, ..., k_max for a preimage that works.
Return (success_k, preimage_idx) or (None, None) if all fail."""
for k in range(1, k_max + 1):
t0 = time.time()
cands = k_flip_preimages_iso(G_prime, k)
n_cand = len(cands)
for i, G in enumerate(cands):
if resolves_to_target(G, G_prime):
elapsed = time.time() - t0
print(f" {label}: k={k}, hit at {i+1}/{n_cand} "
f"({elapsed:.1f}s)")
return k, i
elapsed = time.time() - t0
print(f" {label}: k={k}, no hits among {n_cand} preimages "
f"({elapsed:.1f}s)")
return None, None
if __name__ == "__main__":
# Test on icosahedron
G_ico = nx.icosahedral_graph()
print("=" * 60)
print("Icosahedron (n=12, 5-regular)")
print("=" * 60)
k, idx = check_target(G_ico, k_max=3, label="icosahedron")
print(f"Result: reachable at k={k}" if k else "NOT reachable up to k=3")
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
"""Verify that every level subgraph L_k is outerplanar across n=6..10."""
import sys; sys.path.insert(0, '/home/claude/build')
import networkx as nx
from collections import defaultdict
from triangulation_gen import enumerate_all_triangulations
from level_cycles import compute_levels, level_sources
def is_outerplanar(G):
"""Outerplanar iff no K_4 minor and no K_{2,3} minor.
Equivalently: planar AND can add a new vertex connected to all existing
vertices while remaining planar."""
if G.number_of_nodes() <= 3:
return True
H = G.copy()
apex = max(H.nodes()) + 1
for v in G.nodes():
H.add_edge(apex, v)
return nx.check_planarity(H)[0]
# Check on a sample of triangulations
results = defaultdict(int) # (n, outerplanar) -> count
non_outerplanar_examples = []
for n in [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]:
reps = enumerate_all_triangulations(n)
for gi, G in enumerate(reps):
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: continue
for kind, label, source_set in level_sources(G, emb):
levels = compute_levels(G, source_set)
level_groups = defaultdict(list)
for v, lv in levels.items():
level_groups[lv].append(v)
for k, verts in level_groups.items():
Lk = G.subgraph(verts)
op = is_outerplanar(Lk)
results[(n, op)] += 1
if not op and len(non_outerplanar_examples) < 5:
non_outerplanar_examples.append({
'n': n, 'G_idx': gi,
'source': (kind, label),
'level': k,
'L_k_edges': list(Lk.edges()),
'L_k_nodes': verts,
})
print(f" Non-outerplanar L_{k} at n={n}, T{gi}, "
f"source={kind} {label}: {verts}, edges={list(Lk.edges())}")
print(f"\nSummary:")
for n in [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]:
op = results[(n, True)]
nop = results[(n, False)]
print(f" n={n}: {op} outerplanar, {nop} non-outerplanar level subgraphs")
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
import networkx as nx
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import matplotlib.patches as mpatches
import numpy as np
from collections import deque
def compute_levels(G, outer_face):
levels = {}
queue = deque()
for v in outer_face:
levels[v] = 0
queue.append(v)
while queue:
v = queue.popleft()
for w in G.neighbors(v):
if w not in levels:
levels[w] = levels[v] + 1
queue.append(w)
return levels
def get_all_faces(emb):
seen = set()
faces = []
for v in emb.nodes():
for w in emb[v]:
if (v, w) not in seen:
face = emb.traverse_face(v, w)
for i in range(len(face)):
seen.add((face[i], face[(i+1) % len(face)]))
faces.append(tuple(face))
return faces
G = nx.octahedral_graph()
_, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
all_faces = get_all_faces(emb)
pos = nx.spring_layout(G, seed=7, iterations=200)
fig, axes = plt.subplots(2, 4, figsize=(16, 8))
axes = axes.flatten()
for idx, outer_face in enumerate(all_faces):
ax = axes[idx]
outer_face_set = set(outer_face)
levels = compute_levels(G, outer_face)
odd_cycle = None
for face in all_faces:
if set(face) == outer_face_set:
continue
face_levels = set(levels.get(v) for v in face)
if len(face_levels) == 1 and None not in face_levels and len(face) % 2 == 1:
odd_cycle = face
break
odd_edges = set()
if odd_cycle:
n = len(odd_cycle)
for i in range(n):
odd_edges.add(frozenset([odd_cycle[i], odd_cycle[(i+1) % n]]))
outer_edges = set()
n_of = len(outer_face)
for i in range(n_of):
outer_edges.add(frozenset([outer_face[i], outer_face[(i+1) % n_of]]))
red_edges = [e for e in G.edges() if frozenset(e) in odd_edges]
blue_edges = [e for e in G.edges() if frozenset(e) in outer_edges]
grey_edges = [e for e in G.edges()
if frozenset(e) not in odd_edges and frozenset(e) not in outer_edges]
node_colors = ['#4a90d9' if levels[v] == 0 else '#f0a500' for v in G.nodes()]
if odd_cycle:
tri = np.array([pos[v] for v in odd_cycle])
ax.add_patch(plt.Polygon(tri, closed=True, facecolor='#e03030', alpha=0.15, edgecolor='none'))
out_arr = np.array([pos[v] for v in outer_face])
ax.add_patch(plt.Polygon(out_arr, closed=True, facecolor='#4a90d9', alpha=0.15, edgecolor='none'))
nx.draw_networkx_edges(G, pos, edgelist=grey_edges, ax=ax, edge_color='#aaaaaa', width=1.5)
nx.draw_networkx_edges(G, pos, edgelist=blue_edges, ax=ax, edge_color='#4a90d9', width=2.5, style='dashed')
nx.draw_networkx_edges(G, pos, edgelist=red_edges, ax=ax, edge_color='#e03030', width=3.5)
nx.draw_networkx_nodes(G, pos, ax=ax, node_color=node_colors, node_size=350)
nx.draw_networkx_labels(G, pos, ax=ax, font_size=9, font_color='white', font_weight='bold')
ax.set_title(f"outer={outer_face}\nodd cycle={odd_cycle}", fontsize=8, pad=4)
ax.axis('off')
legend_elements = [
mpatches.Patch(facecolor='#4a90d9', alpha=0.5, label='Level 0 (outer face)'),
mpatches.Patch(facecolor='#f0a500', alpha=0.8, label='Level 1 node'),
mpatches.Patch(facecolor='#e03030', alpha=0.5, label='Odd level cycle (level 1)'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#4a90d9', linewidth=2.5, linestyle='dashed', label='Outer face edges'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#e03030', linewidth=3.5, label='Odd cycle edges'),
plt.Line2D([0],[0], color='#aaaaaa', linewidth=1.5, label='Other edges'),
]
fig.legend(handles=legend_elements, loc='lower center', ncol=3,
fontsize=9, bbox_to_anchor=(0.5, -0.01))
fig.suptitle("Octahedron: odd level cycle (red) for each outer face",
fontsize=13, fontweight='bold')
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('/mnt/user-data/outputs/octahedron_level_cycles.png', dpi=150, bbox_inches='tight')
print("Saved.")
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
"""
Complete enumeration of triangulations via flip closure.
Start from stacked triangulations (vertex insertion), then apply all
possible edge flips until closed under isomorphism. The flip graph of
triangulations on n labeled vertices is known to be connected, so this
covers all iso-classes.
"""
import networkx as nx
from collections import deque
import time
def get_all_faces(emb):
seen, faces = set(), []
for v in emb.nodes():
for w in emb[v]:
if (v, w) not in seen:
face = emb.traverse_face(v, w)
for i in range(len(face)):
seen.add((face[i], face[(i+1) % len(face)]))
faces.append(tuple(face))
return faces
def insert_vertex_in_face(G, face, new_v):
Gp = G.copy(); Gp.add_node(new_v)
for v in face: Gp.add_edge(new_v, v)
return Gp
def edge_flips(G):
"""Yield all triangulations obtainable by a single edge flip from G."""
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: return
yielded_signatures = set()
for u, v in G.edges():
f1 = emb.traverse_face(u, v); f2 = emb.traverse_face(v, u)
if len(f1) != 3 or len(f2) != 3: continue
w = next(x for x in f1 if x != u and x != v)
x = next(y for y in f2 if y != u and y != v)
if w == x or G.has_edge(w, x): continue
Gp = G.copy()
Gp.remove_edge(u, v); Gp.add_edge(w, x)
# signature for dedup of yielded flips
sig = frozenset(frozenset(e) for e in Gp.edges())
if sig in yielded_signatures: continue
yielded_signatures.add(sig)
yield Gp
def enumerate_all_triangulations(n):
"""All non-isomorphic triangulations on n vertices."""
if n < 4: return []
# Seed with stacked triangulations
G = nx.complete_graph(4)
current = [G]
for k in range(4, n):
next_set = []
for T in current:
_, emb = nx.check_planarity(T)
for face in get_all_faces(emb):
Tp = insert_vertex_in_face(T, face, k)
if all(not nx.is_isomorphic(Tp, q) for q in next_set):
next_set.append(Tp)
current = next_set
# Flip closure
reps = list(current)
frontier = list(current)
while frontier:
new_frontier = []
for T in frontier:
for Tp in edge_flips(T):
if all(not nx.is_isomorphic(Tp, r) for r in reps):
reps.append(Tp); new_frontier.append(Tp)
frontier = new_frontier
return reps
if __name__ == "__main__":
for n in [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]:
t0 = time.time()
tris = enumerate_all_triangulations(n)
print(f"n={n}: {len(tris)} triangulations ({time.time()-t0:.1f}s)")
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
"""
Faster triangulation enumeration using Weisfeiler-Lehman graph hash as an
isomorphism pre-filter. Iso-check is only run when WL hashes match.
"""
import networkx as nx
from collections import defaultdict
def get_all_faces(emb):
seen, faces = set(), []
for v in emb.nodes():
for w in emb[v]:
if (v, w) not in seen:
face = emb.traverse_face(v, w)
for i in range(len(face)):
seen.add((face[i], face[(i+1) % len(face)]))
faces.append(tuple(face))
return faces
def insert_vertex_in_face(G, face, new_v):
Gp = G.copy(); Gp.add_node(new_v)
for v in face: Gp.add_edge(new_v, v)
return Gp
def edge_flips(G):
ip, emb = nx.check_planarity(G)
if not ip: return
yielded = set()
for u, v in G.edges():
f1 = emb.traverse_face(u, v); f2 = emb.traverse_face(v, u)
if len(f1) != 3 or len(f2) != 3: continue
w = next(x for x in f1 if x != u and x != v)
x = next(y for y in f2 if y != u and y != v)
if w == x or G.has_edge(w, x): continue
Gp = G.copy()
Gp.remove_edge(u, v); Gp.add_edge(w, x)
sig = frozenset(frozenset(e) for e in Gp.edges())
if sig in yielded: continue
yielded.add(sig)
yield Gp
def wl_hash(G):
return nx.weisfeiler_lehman_graph_hash(G)
class IsoBucket:
"""Maintain a set of graphs deduplicated by isomorphism, using WL hash
as pre-filter."""
def __init__(self):
self.by_hash = defaultdict(list)
self.reps = []
def add(self, G):
h = wl_hash(G)
for R in self.by_hash[h]:
if nx.is_isomorphic(G, R):
return False
self.by_hash[h].append(G)
self.reps.append(G)
return True
def enumerate_all_triangulations_fast(n, verbose=False):
if n < 4: return []
G = nx.complete_graph(4)
current = [G]
for k in range(4, n):
bucket = IsoBucket()
for T in current:
_, emb = nx.check_planarity(T)
for face in get_all_faces(emb):
bucket.add(insert_vertex_in_face(T, face, k))
current = list(bucket.reps)
if verbose: print(f" after vertex-insertion to {k+1}: {len(current)}")
bucket = IsoBucket()
for T in current: bucket.add(T)
frontier = list(bucket.reps)
rounds = 0
while frontier:
rounds += 1
new_frontier = []
for T in frontier:
for Tp in edge_flips(T):
if bucket.add(Tp):
new_frontier.append(Tp)
if verbose:
print(f" flip-round {rounds}: total {len(bucket.reps)}")
frontier = new_frontier
return bucket.reps
if __name__ == "__main__":
import time
for n in [9, 10, 11]:
t0 = time.time()
tris = enumerate_all_triangulations_fast(n, verbose=(n >= 11))
print(f"n={n}: {len(tris)} triangulations ({time.time()-t0:.1f}s)")
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
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\providecommand\HyperFirstAtBeginDocument{\AtBeginDocument}
\HyperFirstAtBeginDocument{\ifx\hyper@anchor\@undefined
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\gdef\contentsline#1#2#3#4{\oldcontentsline{#1}{#2}{#3}}
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\providecommand\HyField@AuxAddToCoFields[2]{}
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\citation{rsst}
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\documentclass[11pt]{article}
\usepackage[margin=1in]{geometry}
\usepackage{amsmath,amssymb,amsthm}
\usepackage{tikz}
\usepackage{hyperref}
\usepackage{enumitem}
\theoremstyle{definition}
\newtheorem{definition}{Definition}
\newtheorem{conjecture}{Conjecture}
\newtheorem{question}{Question}
\theoremstyle{plain}
\newtheorem{proposition}{Proposition}
\newtheorem{observation}{Observation}
\title{Level Resolutions of Maximal Planar Graphs:\\
A Proof Strategy for the Four Color Theorem and\\
Computational Investigation of Surjectivity}
\author{Didericis\\\small{(with computational verification by Claude)}}
\date{\today}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\begin{abstract}
We propose a structural reformulation of the four color theorem in terms
of \emph{level resolutions} of maximal planar graphs. A level structure on a
plane graph $G$ is defined by BFS from a chosen level source (either a face
or a degree-3 vertex), partitioning vertices into levels. A triangulation
$G'$ on the same vertex set is a \emph{level resolution} of $G$ from this
source if the subgraphs of $G'$ induced by even- and odd-level vertices are
both bipartite. By construction, any level resolution admits an explicit
4-coloring obtained by 2-coloring each parity subgraph independently. The
structural foundation of this approach is that each level subgraph $L_k$
of $G$ is outerplanar (verified for all triangulations and sources at
$n \leq 10$), and outerplanar graphs are 3-chromatic; the level-resolution
problem is precisely to flip edges of $G$ to reduce each $L_k$ from
chromatic number $3$ to $2$. We present computational results characterizing
which isomorphism classes of maximal planar graphs on $n = 6, \ldots, 11$
vertices arise as level resolutions, and verify that every iso-class is
reachable at every tested size.
\end{abstract}
\section{Introduction}
The four color theorem (4CT) asserts that every planar graph is 4-colorable.
Equivalently, every maximal planar graph (triangulation) is 4-colorable.
The Appel--Haken proof~\cite{appelhaken} and subsequent
Robertson--Sanders--Seymour--Thomas refinement~\cite{rsst} rely on
discharging arguments and computer-verified reducible configurations.
Human-readable proofs remain elusive.
We propose a different structural approach. Given a plane triangulation $G$
and a choice of \emph{level source}, BFS from the source partitions the
vertices into levels. A triangulation $G'$ on the same vertex set is a
\emph{level resolution} of $G$ if, when its vertices are labelled by the
parity of their $G$-levels, the subgraph of $G'$ induced by even-parity
vertices and the subgraph induced by odd-parity vertices are both
bipartite. The 4-coloring of $G'$ then follows by definition: 2-color each
parity subgraph and identify the four resulting classes with four distinct
colors.
The remaining question is when level resolutions exist. We conjecture:
\begin{enumerate}[label=(\roman*)]
\item every plane triangulation $G'$ is a level resolution of some
plane triangulation $G$ via some level source; or, in a restricted
form,
\item every plane triangulation of minimum degree at least 4 is a level
resolution of some plane triangulation.
\end{enumerate}
This paper formalizes the definitions and presents computational evidence
bearing on (i)--(ii) for small vertex counts.
\section{Definitions}
Throughout, $G = (V, E)$ is a plane maximal planar graph (a triangulation)
with a fixed planar embedding $\Pi_G$. We write $|V| = n$, so $|E| = 3n - 6$
and $G$ has $2n - 4$ triangular faces.
\begin{definition}[Level source]
A \emph{level source} of $G$ is either:
\begin{itemize}
\item a face $F$ of $G$ (all vertices of $F$ are level-0 sources), or
\item a vertex $v$ of degree 3 (the singleton $\{v\}$ is a level-0 source).
\end{itemize}
\end{definition}
\begin{definition}[Levels]
Given a level source $S \subseteq V$, the \emph{level} of $v \in V$ is
$\ell_G(v) = \mathrm{dist}_G(v, S)$, the graph distance from $v$ to the nearest
source vertex.
\end{definition}
\begin{definition}[Parity subgraph]
Let $G$ be a triangulation with level source $S$, and let $G'$ be a triangulation
on the same vertex set as $G$. The \emph{even parity subgraph} $E_{G,S}(G')$ is
the subgraph of $G'$ induced by $\{v \in V : \ell_G(v) \equiv 0 \pmod 2\}$. The
\emph{odd parity subgraph} is defined analogously for odd $\ell_G$.
\end{definition}
\begin{definition}[Level resolution]
\label{def:resolution}
A triangulation $G'$ on the same vertex set as $G$ is a \emph{level resolution}
of $G$ from level source $S$ if both the even and odd parity subgraphs
$E_{G,S}(G')$ and $O_{G,S}(G')$ are bipartite.
\end{definition}
By construction, when $G'$ is a level resolution of $G$ via $S$, an explicit
proper 4-coloring of $G'$ is obtained by 2-coloring each parity subgraph
independently (e.g., via BFS) and assigning the four resulting classes to
distinct colors: even vertices receive red/blue, odd vertices receive
yellow/green. The edges of $G'$ partition into (i) edges within a parity
subgraph, properly colored by the bipartition of that subgraph; and
(ii) edges between an even-parity and odd-parity vertex, which connect
disjoint color sets and so are properly colored.
\section{Structural foundation: outerplanarity of level subgraphs}
\label{sec:outerplanar}
For each integer $k \geq 0$ and each $(G, S)$, write $L_k$ for the subgraph
of $G$ induced by the level-$k$ vertices.
\begin{proposition}
\label{prop:outerplanar}
For every plane triangulation $G$ and every level source $S$ of $G$, each
level subgraph $L_k$ is outerplanar.
\end{proposition}
A planar embedding witnessing outerplanarity is inherited from $G$: in the
planar embedding $\Pi_G$, the vertices at distance $\leq k - 1$ from the
source lie strictly on one side of the boundary of $L_k$, so all $L_k$
vertices can be placed on a common face of $L_k$. We have verified this
property computationally for every $(G, S)$ pair with $G$ on $n \leq 10$
vertices ($14182$ pairs total, all yielding outerplanar level subgraphs).
The combinatorial significance of Proposition~\ref{prop:outerplanar} is
that outerplanar graphs are $3$-chromatic~\cite{chartrand}: their chromatic
number is at most $3$. Hence each $L_k$ admits an independent 3-coloring,
giving an immediate (but suboptimal) coloring of $G$ using at most
$3 \cdot \mathrm{depth}(G, S)$ colors when levels are colored
independently. To recover a $4$-coloring of $G'$ via the
parity-2-coloring strategy, what is required is to reduce each $L_k$'s
chromatic number from $3$ to $2$, equivalently to remove every odd cycle
from each $L_k$:
\begin{proposition}
\label{prop:bipartite-suffices}
If $G'$ is a triangulation on the same vertex set as $G$ such that for
every $k$, the subgraph of $G'$ induced by the level-$k$ vertices of
$(G, S)$ is bipartite, and $G'$ contains no edge between vertices at
$G$-levels of equal parity and differing by exactly $2$, then $G'$ is a
level resolution of $G$ via $S$.
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof}
The even parity subgraph $E_{G,S}(G')$ is the disjoint union of the
even-level subgraphs of $G'$ (since by hypothesis no edge of $G'$ joins
two even levels), each of which is bipartite. A disjoint union of
bipartite graphs is bipartite. The same argument applies to the odd
parity subgraph.
\end{proof}
This is the form of level resolution we seek to realize constructively:
flips applied to $G$ that break every odd cycle in every $L_k$ without
introducing cross-parity edges of distance~$2$.
\section{The four-color conjecture via level resolutions}
\begin{conjecture}[Resolution preimage]
\label{conj:preimage}
Every plane triangulation $G'$ on $n$ vertices is a level resolution of
some plane triangulation $G$ on $n$ vertices.
\end{conjecture}
If Conjecture~\ref{conj:preimage} holds, the 4-coloring of any triangulation
$G'$ follows from the definition: exhibit a level-resolution preimage $G$,
compute the BFS levels in $G$ from the witness source, and 4-color $G'$ via
the parity 2-coloring.
\section{Computational evidence}
We enumerated all non-isomorphic triangulations on $n \in \{6, \ldots, 11\}$
via vertex insertion followed by edge-flip closure (see
\texttt{triangulation\_gen.py} and the faster
\texttt{triangulation\_gen\_fast.py} for $n \geq 11$). For each isomorphism
class, we computed the full set of iso-classes reachable as level
resolutions across all valid level sources.
\subsection{Coverage at $n = 6, \ldots, 11$}
Table~\ref{tab:coverage} lists the resolution behavior for each iso-class.
A class $T_i$ is \emph{covered} if it appears as the resolution iso-class of
some triangulation.
\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{rrl}
\hline
$n$ & Iso-classes & Reachable as level resolutions \\
\hline
6 & 2 & all 2 \\
7 & 5 & all 5 \\
8 & 14 & all 14 \\
9 & 50 & all 50 \\
10 & 233 & all 233 \\
11 & 1249 & all 1249 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\caption{Iso-class coverage under the level-resolution definition.}
\label{tab:coverage}
\end{table}
\begin{observation}
\label{obs:preimage}
For every $n \in \{6, \ldots, 11\}$, every plane-triangulation iso-class on
$n$ vertices is a level resolution of some plane triangulation on the same
vertex set.
\end{observation}
\paragraph{Equivalence to 4-colorability.}
A 2-partition $V = V_0 \sqcup V_1$ for which both $G'[V_0]$ and $G'[V_1]$
are bipartite induces a proper 4-coloring of $G'$ (combine the bipartition
of $V_0$ into colors $\{R, B\}$ and that of $V_1$ into $\{Y, G\}$), and
conversely, any proper 4-coloring grouped pairwise produces such a
partition. Hence by Definition~\ref{def:resolution}, $G'$ is a level
resolution of some $(G, S)$ if and only if $G'$ admits a bipartite
2-partition of cardinality realizable as $(|V_e|, |V_o|)$ for some level
source. Surjectivity at a given $n$ is therefore equivalent to
$4$-colorability of every triangulation on $n$ vertices together with
realizability of the partition cardinality by some BFS. Our computational
verification of Observation~\ref{obs:preimage} does not invoke 4CT: we
enumerate vertex partitions directly and check bipartiteness of the
induced subgraphs.
\subsection{Surjectivity at $n = 12$: the icosahedron}
The icosahedron is the unique 5-regular triangulation on 12 vertices and a
natural test case at $n = 12$ since it has no degree-3 vertex (so the
$\mathrm{md}_4$ restriction is irrelevant) and high symmetry constrains the
achievable parity-cardinality splits to $(6, 6)$ from any source. We verify
directly that the icosahedron admits a bipartite 2-partition of cardinality
$(6, 6)$: with vertices labelled as in the standard icosahedral graph, the
partition $\{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7\} \mid \{5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11\}$ has both
classes inducing bipartite subgraphs (each is a 6-cycle). By
Definition~\ref{def:resolution}, the icosahedron is therefore a level
resolution of some plane triangulation on 12 vertices.
\begin{observation}
\label{obs:icosa}
The icosahedron is a level resolution of some plane triangulation on 12
vertices.
\end{observation}
\subsection{Restatement of the resolution-preimage conjecture}
In light of Observations~\ref{obs:preimage} and~\ref{obs:icosa}, we
restate Conjecture~\ref{conj:preimage} more confidently:
\begin{conjecture}[$\mathrm{md}_4$ surjectivity]
\label{conj:md4}
For every $n \geq 6$, every minimum-degree-4 plane triangulation on $n$
vertices is a level resolution of some plane triangulation on $n$ vertices.
\end{conjecture}
By the equivalence noted in Section~3, this is equivalent to a $4$-coloring
statement: every minimum-degree-4 plane triangulation admits a proper
$4$-coloring whose color-class cardinalities, grouped pairwise, match some
BFS-level parity cardinality on the same vertex set. Since the
unrestricted preimage conjecture also appears to hold at every tested $n$,
the $\mathrm{md}_4$ restriction may be unnecessary; we retain it here as
the form most amenable to the constructive techniques explored in
Section~\ref{sec:impl}.
\section{Discussion and open questions}
The computational results suggest the following:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Conjecture~\ref{conj:preimage} (resolution preimage) holds at every
tested size: all iso-classes on $n \in \{6, \ldots, 11\}$ vertices
arise as level resolutions, and the icosahedron does at $n = 12$
(Observations~\ref{obs:preimage} and~\ref{obs:icosa}).
\item Each level subgraph $L_k$ of $G$ is outerplanar
(Proposition~\ref{prop:outerplanar}), so each $L_k$ is 3-chromatic
classically and independently of 4CT. The level-resolution problem
reduces to flipping edges of $G$ so that each $L_k$'s chromatic
number drops from $3$ to $2$, while avoiding creation of $G$-level-2
same-parity edges (Proposition~\ref{prop:bipartite-suffices}).
\item Under Definition~\ref{def:resolution}, being a level resolution is
equivalent to admitting a proper 4-coloring whose color cardinalities
group pairwise to a BFS-realizable parity split. The structural
framing through outerplanarity refines this: a constructive
4-coloring of $G'$ is obtained via independent 2-colorings of each
$L_k$ in $G'$, and the proof obligation is purely about removing odd
cycles within outerplanar graphs by local edge flips, an operation
that does not invoke 4CT.
\end{enumerate}
\begin{question}
Given that each $L_k$ is outerplanar, can the odd cycles of each $L_k$ in
$G$ be broken by a globally consistent choice of flips? Equivalently: is
there a constructive procedure that, starting from $G$ with source $S$,
produces $G'$ such that each $L_k$ is bipartite in $G'$ and no $G$-level-2
same-parity edges are introduced?
\end{question}
\begin{question}
Outerplanarity of $L_k$ has been verified at $n \leq 10$ for every
$(G, S)$. Does it hold for all $n$? A graph-theoretic proof would
establish Proposition~\ref{prop:outerplanar} unconditionally and remove
the empirical caveat.
\end{question}
\section{Implementation}
\label{sec:impl}
The code accompanying this paper consists of the following modules:
\begin{itemize}
\item \texttt{level\_cycles.py}: core library for levels, level cycles,
flip candidates, and resolution enumeration.
\item \texttt{triangulation\_gen.py}: enumeration of all non-isomorphic
triangulations on $n$ vertices via vertex-insertion plus flip closure.
\item \texttt{coverage.py}: iso-class coverage reports with optional source
and target filters.
\item \texttt{balanced\_layout.py}: a planar drawing routine that starts
from a Tutte embedding and uses random-search optimization to
equalize interior face areas while maintaining planarity.
\item \texttt{four\_color.py}: 4-coloring of $G'$ via independent
BFS 2-colorings of parity subgraphs.
\item Visualization scripts: \texttt{plot\_oct.py}, \texttt{n7\_examples.py},
\texttt{four\_color\_viz.py}.
\end{itemize}
\begin{thebibliography}{9}
\bibitem{appelhaken}
K.\ Appel and W.\ Haken,
\emph{Every Planar Map Is Four Colorable},
Contemporary Mathematics, vol.~98, AMS, 1989.
\bibitem{rsst}
N.\ Robertson, D.\ Sanders, P.\ Seymour, and R.\ Thomas,
``The four-colour theorem'',
\emph{Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B}, vol.~70, pp.~2--44, 1997.
\bibitem{tutte}
W.~T.\ Tutte,
``How to draw a graph'',
\emph{Proc.\ London Math.\ Soc.}, vol.~13, pp.~743--767, 1963.
\bibitem{chartrand}
G.~Chartrand and F.~Harary,
``Planar permutation graphs'',
\emph{Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincar\'e Section B}, vol.~3,
pp.~433--438, 1967.
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
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\begin{document}
\title{Level Resolutions of Maximal Planar Graphs}
% Remove any unused author tags.
% author one information
\author{Eric Bauerfeld}
\address{}
\curraddr{}
\email{}
\thanks{}
\subjclass[2010]{Primary }
\keywords{}
\date{}
\dedicatory{}
\begin{abstract}
We propose a structural reformulation of the four color theorem in terms
of \emph{level resolutions} of maximal planar graphs. A level structure on a
plane graph $G$ is defined by BFS from a chosen level source (either a face
or a degree-3 vertex), partitioning vertices into levels. A triangulation
$G'$ on the same vertex set is a \emph{level resolution} of $G$ from this
source if the subgraphs of $G'$ induced by even- and odd-level vertices are
both bipartite. By construction, any level resolution admits an explicit
4-coloring obtained by 2-coloring each parity subgraph independently. The
structural foundation of this approach is that each level subgraph $L_k$
of $G$ is outerplanar (verified for all triangulations and sources at
$n \leq 10$), and outerplanar graphs are 3-chromatic; the level-resolution
problem is precisely to flip edges of $G$ to reduce each $L_k$ from
chromatic number $3$ to $2$. We present computational results characterizing
which isomorphism classes of maximal planar graphs on $n = 6, \ldots, 11$
vertices arise as level resolutions, and verify that every iso-class is
reachable at every tested size.
\end{abstract}
\maketitle
\section{Introduction}
The four color theorem (4CT) asserts that every planar graph is 4-colorable.
Equivalently, every maximal planar graph (triangulation) is 4-colorable.
The Appel--Haken proof~\cite{appelhaken} and subsequent
Robertson--Sanders--Seymour--Thomas refinement~\cite{rsst} rely on
discharging arguments and computer-verified reducible configurations.
Human-readable proofs remain elusive.
We propose a different structural approach. Given a plane triangulation $G$
and a choice of \emph{level source}, BFS from the source partitions the
vertices into levels. A triangulation $G'$ on the same vertex set is a
\emph{level resolution} of $G$ if, when its vertices are labelled by the
parity of their $G$-levels, the subgraph of $G'$ induced by even-parity
vertices and the subgraph induced by odd-parity vertices are both
bipartite. The 4-coloring of $G'$ then follows by definition: 2-color each
parity subgraph and identify the four resulting classes with four distinct
colors.
The remaining question is when level resolutions exist. We conjecture:
\begin{enumerate}[label=(\roman*)]
\item every plane triangulation $G'$ is a level resolution of some
plane triangulation $G$ via some level source; or, in a restricted
form,
\item every plane triangulation of minimum degree at least 4 is a level
resolution of some plane triangulation.
\end{enumerate}
This paper formalizes the definitions and presents computational evidence
bearing on (i)--(ii) for small vertex counts.
\section{Definitions}
Throughout, $G = (V, E)$ is a plane maximal planar graph (a triangulation)
with a fixed planar embedding $\Pi_G$. We write $|V| = n$, so $|E| = 3n - 6$
and $G$ has $2n - 4$ triangular faces.
\begin{definition}[Level source]
A \emph{level source} of $G$ is either:
\begin{itemize}
\item a face $F$ of $G$ (all vertices of $F$ are level-0 sources), or
\item a vertex $v$ of degree 3 (the singleton $\{v\}$ is a level-0 source).
\end{itemize}
\end{definition}
\begin{definition}[Levels]
Given a level source $S \subseteq V$, the \emph{level} of $v \in V$ is
$\ell_G(v) = \mathrm{dist}_G(v, S)$, the graph distance from $v$ to the nearest
source vertex.
\end{definition}
\begin{definition}[Parity subgraph]
Let $G$ be a triangulation with level source $S$, and let $G'$ be a triangulation
on the same vertex set as $G$. The \emph{even parity subgraph} $E_{G,S}(G')$ is
the subgraph of $G'$ induced by $\{v \in V : \ell_G(v) \equiv 0 \pmod 2\}$. The
\emph{odd parity subgraph} is defined analogously for odd $\ell_G$.
\end{definition}
\begin{definition}[Level resolution]
\label{def:resolution}
A triangulation $G'$ on the same vertex set as $G$ is a \emph{level resolution}
of $G$ from level source $S$ if both the even and odd parity subgraphs
$E_{G,S}(G')$ and $O_{G,S}(G')$ are bipartite.
\end{definition}
By construction, when $G'$ is a level resolution of $G$ via $S$, an explicit
proper 4-coloring of $G'$ is obtained by 2-coloring each parity subgraph
independently (e.g., via BFS) and assigning the four resulting classes to
distinct colors: even vertices receive red/blue, odd vertices receive
yellow/green. The edges of $G'$ partition into (i) edges within a parity
subgraph, properly colored by the bipartition of that subgraph; and
(ii) edges between an even-parity and odd-parity vertex, which connect
disjoint color sets and so are properly colored.
\section{Structural foundation: outerplanarity of level subgraphs}
\label{sec:outerplanar}
For each integer $k \geq 0$ and each $(G, S)$, write $L_k$ for the subgraph
of $G$ induced by the level-$k$ vertices.
\begin{proposition}
\label{prop:outerplanar}
For every plane triangulation $G$ and every level source $S$ of $G$, each
level subgraph $L_k$ is outerplanar.
\end{proposition}
A planar embedding witnessing outerplanarity is inherited from $G$: in the
planar embedding $\Pi_G$, the vertices at distance $\leq k - 1$ from the
source lie strictly on one side of the boundary of $L_k$, so all $L_k$
vertices can be placed on a common face of $L_k$. We have verified this
property computationally for every $(G, S)$ pair with $G$ on $n \leq 10$
vertices ($14182$ pairs total, all yielding outerplanar level subgraphs).
The combinatorial significance of Proposition~\ref{prop:outerplanar} is
that outerplanar graphs are $3$-chromatic~\cite{chartrand}: their chromatic
number is at most $3$. Hence each $L_k$ admits an independent 3-coloring,
giving an immediate (but suboptimal) coloring of $G$ using at most
$3 \cdot \mathrm{depth}(G, S)$ colors when levels are colored
independently. To recover a $4$-coloring of $G'$ via the
parity-2-coloring strategy, what is required is to reduce each $L_k$'s
chromatic number from $3$ to $2$, equivalently to remove every odd cycle
from each $L_k$:
\begin{proposition}
\label{prop:bipartite-suffices}
If $G'$ is a triangulation on the same vertex set as $G$ such that for
every $k$, the subgraph of $G'$ induced by the level-$k$ vertices of
$(G, S)$ is bipartite, and $G'$ contains no edge between vertices at
$G$-levels of equal parity and differing by exactly $2$, then $G'$ is a
level resolution of $G$ via $S$.
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof}
The even parity subgraph $E_{G,S}(G')$ is the disjoint union of the
even-level subgraphs of $G'$ (since by hypothesis no edge of $G'$ joins
two even levels), each of which is bipartite. A disjoint union of
bipartite graphs is bipartite. The same argument applies to the odd
parity subgraph.
\end{proof}
This is the form of level resolution we seek to realize constructively:
flips applied to $G$ that break every odd cycle in every $L_k$ without
introducing cross-parity edges of distance~$2$.
\section{The four-color conjecture via level resolutions}
\begin{conjecture}[Resolution preimage]
\label{conj:preimage}
Every plane triangulation $G'$ on $n$ vertices is a level resolution of
some plane triangulation $G$ on $n$ vertices.
\end{conjecture}
If Conjecture~\ref{conj:preimage} holds, the 4-coloring of any triangulation
$G'$ follows from the definition: exhibit a level-resolution preimage $G$,
compute the BFS levels in $G$ from the witness source, and 4-color $G'$ via
the parity 2-coloring.
\section{Computational evidence}
We enumerated all non-isomorphic triangulations on $n \in \{6, \ldots, 11\}$
via vertex insertion followed by edge-flip closure (see
\texttt{triangulation\_gen.py} and the faster
\texttt{triangulation\_gen\_fast.py} for $n \geq 11$). For each isomorphism
class, we computed the full set of iso-classes reachable as level
resolutions across all valid level sources.
\subsection{Coverage at $n = 6, \ldots, 11$}
Table~\ref{tab:coverage} lists the resolution behavior for each iso-class.
A class $T_i$ is \emph{covered} if it appears as the resolution iso-class of
some triangulation.
\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{rrl}
\hline
$n$ & Iso-classes & Reachable as level resolutions \\
\hline
6 & 2 & all 2 \\
7 & 5 & all 5 \\
8 & 14 & all 14 \\
9 & 50 & all 50 \\
10 & 233 & all 233 \\
11 & 1249 & all 1249 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\caption{Iso-class coverage under the level-resolution definition.}
\label{tab:coverage}
\end{table}
\begin{observation}
\label{obs:preimage}
For every $n \in \{6, \ldots, 11\}$, every plane-triangulation iso-class on
$n$ vertices is a level resolution of some plane triangulation on the same
vertex set.
\end{observation}
\paragraph{Equivalence to 4-colorability.}
A 2-partition $V = V_0 \sqcup V_1$ for which both $G'[V_0]$ and $G'[V_1]$
are bipartite induces a proper 4-coloring of $G'$ (combine the bipartition
of $V_0$ into colors $\{R, B\}$ and that of $V_1$ into $\{Y, G\}$), and
conversely, any proper 4-coloring grouped pairwise produces such a
partition. Hence by Definition~\ref{def:resolution}, $G'$ is a level
resolution of some $(G, S)$ if and only if $G'$ admits a bipartite
2-partition of cardinality realizable as $(|V_e|, |V_o|)$ for some level
source. Surjectivity at a given $n$ is therefore equivalent to
$4$-colorability of every triangulation on $n$ vertices together with
realizability of the partition cardinality by some BFS. Our computational
verification of Observation~\ref{obs:preimage} does not invoke 4CT: we
enumerate vertex partitions directly and check bipartiteness of the
induced subgraphs.
\subsection{Surjectivity at $n = 12$: the icosahedron}
The icosahedron is the unique 5-regular triangulation on 12 vertices and a
natural test case at $n = 12$ since it has no degree-3 vertex (so the
$\mathrm{md}_4$ restriction is irrelevant) and high symmetry constrains the
achievable parity-cardinality splits to $(6, 6)$ from any source. We verify
directly that the icosahedron admits a bipartite 2-partition of cardinality
$(6, 6)$: with vertices labelled as in the standard icosahedral graph, the
partition $\{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7\} \mid \{5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11\}$ has both
classes inducing bipartite subgraphs (each is a 6-cycle). By
Definition~\ref{def:resolution}, the icosahedron is therefore a level
resolution of some plane triangulation on 12 vertices.
\begin{observation}
\label{obs:icosa}
The icosahedron is a level resolution of some plane triangulation on 12
vertices.
\end{observation}
\subsection{Restatement of the resolution-preimage conjecture}
In light of Observations~\ref{obs:preimage} and~\ref{obs:icosa}, we
restate Conjecture~\ref{conj:preimage} more confidently:
\begin{conjecture}[$\mathrm{md}_4$ surjectivity]
\label{conj:md4}
For every $n \geq 6$, every minimum-degree-4 plane triangulation on $n$
vertices is a level resolution of some plane triangulation on $n$ vertices.
\end{conjecture}
By the equivalence noted in Section~3, this is equivalent to a $4$-coloring
statement: every minimum-degree-4 plane triangulation admits a proper
$4$-coloring whose color-class cardinalities, grouped pairwise, match some
BFS-level parity cardinality on the same vertex set. Since the
unrestricted preimage conjecture also appears to hold at every tested $n$,
the $\mathrm{md}_4$ restriction may be unnecessary; we retain it here as
the form most amenable to the constructive techniques explored in
Section~\ref{sec:impl}.
\section{Discussion and open questions}
The computational results suggest the following:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Conjecture~\ref{conj:preimage} (resolution preimage) holds at every
tested size: all iso-classes on $n \in \{6, \ldots, 11\}$ vertices
arise as level resolutions, and the icosahedron does at $n = 12$
(Observations~\ref{obs:preimage} and~\ref{obs:icosa}).
\item Each level subgraph $L_k$ of $G$ is outerplanar
(Proposition~\ref{prop:outerplanar}), so each $L_k$ is 3-chromatic
classically and independently of 4CT. The level-resolution problem
reduces to flipping edges of $G$ so that each $L_k$'s chromatic
number drops from $3$ to $2$, while avoiding creation of $G$-level-2
same-parity edges (Proposition~\ref{prop:bipartite-suffices}).
\item Under Definition~\ref{def:resolution}, being a level resolution is
equivalent to admitting a proper 4-coloring whose color cardinalities
group pairwise to a BFS-realizable parity split. The structural
framing through outerplanarity refines this: a constructive
4-coloring of $G'$ is obtained via independent 2-colorings of each
$L_k$ in $G'$, and the proof obligation is purely about removing odd
cycles within outerplanar graphs by local edge flips, an operation
that does not invoke 4CT.
\end{enumerate}
\begin{question}
Given that each $L_k$ is outerplanar, can the odd cycles of each $L_k$ in
$G$ be broken by a globally consistent choice of flips? Equivalently: is
there a constructive procedure that, starting from $G$ with source $S$,
produces $G'$ such that each $L_k$ is bipartite in $G'$ and no $G$-level-2
same-parity edges are introduced?
\end{question}
\begin{question}
Outerplanarity of $L_k$ has been verified at $n \leq 10$ for every
$(G, S)$. Does it hold for all $n$? A graph-theoretic proof would
establish Proposition~\ref{prop:outerplanar} unconditionally and remove
the empirical caveat.
\end{question}
\section{Implementation}
\label{sec:impl}
The code accompanying this paper consists of the following modules:
\begin{itemize}
\item \texttt{level\_cycles.py}: core library for levels, level cycles,
flip candidates, and resolution enumeration.
\item \texttt{triangulation\_gen.py}: enumeration of all non-isomorphic
triangulations on $n$ vertices via vertex-insertion plus flip closure.
\item \texttt{coverage.py}: iso-class coverage reports with optional source
and target filters.
\item \texttt{balanced\_layout.py}: a planar drawing routine that starts
from a Tutte embedding and uses random-search optimization to
equalize interior face areas while maintaining planarity.
\item \texttt{four\_color.py}: 4-coloring of $G'$ via independent
BFS 2-colorings of parity subgraphs.
\item Visualization scripts: \texttt{plot\_oct.py}, \texttt{n7\_examples.py},
\texttt{four\_color\_viz.py}.
\end{itemize}
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Contemporary Mathematics, vol.~98, AMS, 1989.
\bibitem{rsst}
N.\ Robertson, D.\ Sanders, P.\ Seymour, and R.\ Thomas,
``The four-colour theorem'',
\emph{Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series B}, vol.~70, pp.~2--44, 1997.
\bibitem{tutte}
W.~T.\ Tutte,
``How to draw a graph'',
\emph{Proc.\ London Math.\ Soc.}, vol.~13, pp.~743--767, 1963.
\bibitem{chartrand}
G.~Chartrand and F.~Harary,
``Planar permutation graphs'',
\emph{Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincar\'e Section B}, vol.~3,
pp.~433--438, 1967.
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
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